THE  LIBRARY 

OF 

THE  UNIVERSITY 
OF  CALIFORNIA 

LOS  ANGELES 

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.  ,\, 


SIXTH     EDITION. 


SORGHO  AND  IMPHEE, 


THE 


CHINESE  AND  AFRICAN  SUGAR  CANES. 


A   TREATISE  UPON   THEIR 


OKIG1N,  VARIETIES  AND  CULTURE  ; 


THEIR    VALUE     AS   A    FORAGE     CROP;    AND    THE     MANUFACTURE     OP    SUGAR, 
SYRUP,  ALCOHOL,  WINES,  BEER,    CIDER.  VINEGAR,    STARCH    AND  DYE- 
STUFFS  ;     WITH    A.    PAPER    BY    LEONARD   WRAY,    ESQ.,  OP 
CAFFRARlA,  AND  A  DE-CRIPTION  OF  HIS  PATENTED 
PROCESS    FOR   CRYSTALLIZING   THE 
JUICE  OF  THE  IMPHEE. 


TO  WHICH  ARE  ADDED, 

COPIOUS  TRANSLATIONS  OF  VALUABLE  FRENCH  PAMPHLETS. 

BY  HENRY  S.  OLCOTT, 

Julia  Ellustratrtj  foitf)  Stagings  of  Hit  lust  fHarijitwrg. 


NEW  YORK: 
A.  0.  MOORE,  AGRICULTURAL  BOOK  PUBLISHER, 

(LATE  C.  M.  SAXTON  &  CO.) 
No.    140    FULTON    STREET. 

1858. 


Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1S57    ty 
..AUGUSTUS    O.    MOORE, 

•     Ii   the  Clerk's  Office  of  the  District  Court  of  the  United  States,  f«  UM 
Southern  District  of  New  York 


f 


PREFACE. 


IF  the  subject  of  this  work,  the  Chinese  Sugar  Cane,  were  as  little 
known  in  Europe  as  it  is  at  present  in  our  own  country,  I  might 
well  hesitate  before  appearing  as  so  decidedly  its  champion.  The  six 
years  which  have  elapsed  since  its  introduction  from  China  into 
France,  have  seen  it  experimented  upon  in  many  different  ways  ;  and 
its  capacity  to  yield  various  valuable  products,  has  been  more  or  less 
thoroughly  tested. 

The  attention  of  agriculturists,  chemists,  sugar  makers,  distillers, 
and  others,  has  in  turn  been  attracted  to  it  as  the  possible  source  of 
profit  to  themselves ;  and  in  our  own  country,  some  of  our  most 
respected  and  trustworthy  citizens  have  put  it  under  cultivation,  and 
announced  its  value  to  the  public. 

It  therefore  having  been  endorsed  by  investigators  in  both  countries 
as  a  plant  of  great  promise, -and  no  delusive  speculation  fostered  by 
sanguine  minds  for  interested  purposes,  I  have  addressed  myself  to  the 
task  of  compiling  all  the  evidence  as  yet  placed  at  our  disposal.  And 
strengthening  it  by  the  result  of  my  own  experience  and  that  of  my 
friends,  I  have  completed  the  testimony  down  to  the  latest  moment,  and 
ask  for  it  a  patient  hearing. 

Yarious  causes  have  combined  to  render  the  present  year  most 
auspicious  to  the  cultivation  and  trial  of  a  new  sugar  plant.  Not 
only  are  our  planters  filled  with  apprehension  because  of  the  rapid 
decline  of  the  tropical  sugar  cane,  under  the  vicissitudes  of  our  climate, 
but  the  use  of  sugar  has  now  become  so  common,  that  we  regard  it  as 
little  short  of  a  necessary  of  life ;  and  short  crops,  reduced  arrivals  from 
foreign  countries,  and  excessive  speculation,  have  all  conspired  to  advance 


613791 


IV  PREFACE. 

the  prices  of  every  description  of  sugars  at  an  almost  unprecedented  rate. 
Under  the  stimulus  of  such  scarcity,  extraordinary  attention  has  been 
given  to  the  manufacture  of  maple  sugar,  as  the  statistics  of  the  present 
year  will  doubtless  show.  But  supposing  even  that  sixty  millions  of 
pounds  of  maple  sugar  should  be  made,  the  insufficiency  of  this 
amount  to  supply  the  demand  of  the  country  will  be  appreciated, 
when  we  reflect  that  in  1855  we  used  nine  hundred  and  nineteen 
millions  of  pounds  of  sugar,  and  many  millions  of  gallons  of 


So  great  is  the  demand,  and  so  comparatively  scanty  the  supply 
that  when  our  General  Government  saw  the  crop  of  1855  was  less 
than  the  preceding  one  by  nearly  two  per  cent,  a  ship  was  dispatched 
to  the  West  Indies  and  adjacent  tropical  countries,  to  procure  a  stock 
of  fresh  cuttings  of  the  best  varieties  of  cane,  to  renew  the  exhausted 
plantations  of  Louisiana. 

What  wonder  is  it  then  that,  when  it  became  bruited  abroad  that 
there  had  been  introduced  from  France,  a  new  plant  which  was  said 
to  have  been  in  common  use  in  North  China  for  the  production  of 
sugar,  and  to  be  capable  of  acclimation  in  even  our  extreme  Northern 
States,  one  simultaneous  desire  should  have  possessed  the  farmers  of 
all  parts  of  the  country  to  procure  a  little  of  the  precious  seed,  and 
experiment  for  themselves  as  to  its  virtues. 

Thus,  then,  we  have  seen  the  news  passed  with  rapidity  from  paper 
to  paper,  throughout  the  land.  The  United  States  Patent  Office 
'gratuitously  distributed  one  hundred  thousand  papers  of  seed  ;  enter- 
prising seedsmen  imported  it  by  the  ton  from  France  ;  the  entire  crop 
of  Mr.  Eichard  Peters,  of  Georgia,  was  sold  by  him  in  packages  of  one 
third  of  a  pound  each ;  so  that,  considering  the  supplies  actually 
known  to  have  been  distributed,  I  think  to  be  entirely  within  the 
bounds  of  moderation  in  stating,  that  there  are  now,  in  the  fall  of 
1857,  under  cultivation  in  the  United  States,  fifty  thousand  acres  of 
Chinese  Sugar  Cane. 

The  interest  in  the  question  has  been  materially  heightened,  and  the 
hopes  of  success  greatly  augmented  by  the  statements  and  discoveries 
of  Mr.  Leonard  Wray,  of  London,  formerly  a  resident  of  Natal,  South 


PEEFACE.  V 

Africa,  who  in  the  month  of  March  last,  arrived  in  this  country,  to 
take  out  letters  patent  for  his  process  of  making  sugar  from  the  juice 
of  the  sorgho  and  the  implies.  This  gentleman  states  that  he  discov- 
ered on  the  south  eastern  coast  of  Africa,  fifteen  varieties  of  the 
Holcus  saccharatus,  cultivated  by  the  Zulu  Kaffirs,  under  the  name 
im-fe,  or  imphee,  and  that,  from  the  juice  of  each  variety,  after 
repeated  failures,  he  made  sugar  in  large  quantities.  Convinced  of 
the  importance  of  his  discovery,  he  has  come  to  the  United  States  at 
the  invitation  of  Governor  Hammond,  of  South  Carolina,  to  introduce 
his  plants.  Mr.  Wray  has  heartily  joined  me  in  my  present  labor*, 
and  has  furnished  the  elaborate  treatise  upon  the  origin,  varieties, 
culture  and  manufactures  of  the  imphee. 

The  value  of  the  plant  being  established,  therefore,  and  its  ultimate 
success  seeming  to  me  quite  certain,  there  is  immediately  created  a 
demand  for  a  critical  work  on  the  subject,  which  shall  enable  enterpris- 
ing and  energetic  men  to  acquaint  themselves  with  its  merits,  and 
divert  unproductive  capital  and  industry  to  carry  on  its  various 
manufactures.  With  no  hope  of  completely  filling  the  hiatus,  but  as 
having  arranged  all  our  available  material,  this  work  has  been  written. 
The  basis  of  it  is  the  matter  contained  in  a  lecture  which  I  wrote  and 
delivered  by  invitation  at  agricultural  meetings  of  the  legislatures  of 
Massachusetts,  New  York  and  Ohio,  during  the  past  winter.  The 
cordial  reception  which  it  met,  and  the  paucity  of  information  as  yet 
published  in  this  country,  suggested  the  idea  that,  perhaps,  if  enlarged 
and  illustrated  by  appropriate  engravings,  it  might  be  of  value  at  the 
present  stage  of  our  experience. 

The  pamphlets  of  Dr.  Sicard,  F.  Bourdais,  Count  Beauregard,  Paul 
Madiuier,  and  Duret  and  the  letter  of  Vilmorin,  were  placed  at  my  dis- 
posal for  translation  by  Messrs.  Hedges,  Free  &  Co.,  of  Cincinnati,  who 
received  them  from  Hon.  John  Y.  Mason,  our  Minister  at  Paris.  The 
description  of  a  West  India  sugar  plantation,  the  chapter  on  alchohol, 
and  the  cuts  of  sugar  and  distilling  apparatus,  were  furnished  by  Mr. 
John  W.  Keid,  of  this  city.  The  article  by  Dr.  Jackson,  furnished 
by  Mr.  D.  Jay  Browne,  of  the  United  States  Patent  Office,  in  advance 
of  its  publication ;  those  of  Dr.  Hayes,  Mr.  Sprague,  Prof.  Gray  and 


VI  PREFACE. 

Mr.  Eedmond,  need  no  praise  from  me  to  make  their  excellence  more 
apparent. 

Thus  aided  and  encouraged  by  gentlemen  of  the  highest  scientific 
and  practical  attainments,  the  author  presents  this  work  to  the  agri- 
cultural public  in  the  sincere  desire  that  the  future  may  not  belie 
the  promise  of  the  present,  but  that  the  plants  of  which  it  treats  may 
prove  to  be  valuable  acquisitions,  an  enduring  source  of  wealth  to  the 
American  farmer. 

WflSTCHESTER   FARM   SCHOOL, 

MOUNT  VERNON,  N.Y.,  AUGUST  30TH,  1857. 


PREFACE-TO  THE  SIXTH  EDITION. 


THE  season  which  has  passed  since  the  appearance  of  this  work  in 
September  last,  has  been  one  of  great  interest  to  all  cultivators  of  the 
new  sugar  canes.  The  published  results  of  thousands  of  experiments 
in  every  State  of  the  Union,  under  every  latitude  and  on  every 
imaginable  variety  of  soil,  have  established  the  value  of  the  sorgho 
beyond  cavil.  There  is  scarce  a  press  in  the  country  but  has  had  in 
its  columns  some  certificate  of  successful  sorgho  culture,  and  the 
vexed  sugar  question  has  been  definitively  settled  by  the  production 
of  cane  sugar  crystals  by  numerous  experimenters.  Nothing,  how- 
ever, which  positively  proved  the  profit  and  ease  of  northern  sugar 
production  had  been  made  public  prior  to  the  13th  of  the  present 
month,  when,  at  the  meeting  of  the  United  States  Agricultural  Society 
in  the  City  of  "Washington,  there  were  exhibited  splendid  samples  of 
loaf  sugar,  "  No.  1  Coffee  "  sugar,  and  various  grades  of  "  Muscovado" 
sugar,  made  by  a  practical  and  well  known  sugar  refiner  of 
Philadelphia,  Mr.  Joseph  S.  Levering.  His  success  was  so  complete' 
and  the  explanation  of  his  process  so  lucid  and  satisfactory,  that  the 
Society,  as  will  be  seen  from  the  record  in  another  place,  awarded 
to  him  its  large  silver  medal  for  his  well  conducted  experiments. 
This  pamphlet  of  Mr.  Lovering,  with  additional  practical  instructions 
for  farmers,  prepared  especially  for  this  work,  will  be  found  in  the 
Appendix.  To  make  room  for  this  aad  the  record  of  other  American 
experiments  of  the  past  year,  several  articles,  embraced  in  the  Appen- 
dix to  the  first  edition,  have  been  expunged  because  they  were  of 
minor  interest  compared  to  those  taking  their  places,  and  could 

[71 


Viil  PREFACE. 

be  omitted  without  materially  affecting  the  practical  value  of  the 
work. 

The  sorgho  has  been  so  successfully  cultivated  throughout  the  great 
West,  that  Conventions  have  been  called  in  Ohio,  Indiana  and  Illinois, 
to  consider  the  best  method  for  its  cultivation  and  for  the  manufac- 
ture of  its  products.  At  the  recent  session  of  the  United  States 
Agricultural  Society,  the  merits  of  both  sorgho  and  imphee  formed 
the  subject  of  a  very  thorough  debate.  It  will  readily  be  foreseen 
that  the  abatement  of  that  excessive  speculation  which  so  greatly 
enhanced  the  value  of  sugars,  will  make  it  difficult  for  the  new  canes 
to  compete  with  the  tropics  in  this  respect,  but  beyond  this  they  have 
a  commercial  value  which  will  insure  their  wide  cultivation.  The 
author  expects  to  spend  some  months  in  France  during  the  present 
year,  and  any  important  discoveries  which  may  come  under  his 
observation,  will  be  communicated  in  future  editions  of  this  work, 
should  such  be  demanded. 

XF.W  YORK,  JANUARY,  1658 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  I. 

ORIGIN  AND   SUBSEQUENT  HISTORY   OF  THE   CHINESE   SUGAR  CANE. 

Th'?  Cane  in  China — Accounts  of  Jesuit  Missionaries — Extracts  from  Ja- 
panese Works— Its  Exhibition  at  the  Great  Fair  at  Moscow— Intro- 
duction into  Europe— The  appearance  of  Mr.  Wray's  Imphee — 
Precarious  position  of  the  Sorgho — To  whom  is  most  Honor  due — Sale 
of  Eight  Hundred  Seeds  to  Vilmorin,  Andrieux,  &  Co.— Various  Ex- 
periments— Attempts  of  Pietro  Arduino,  inl  786 — Mr.  Leonard  Wray 
— Introduction  of  the  Sorgho  into  America — Sugar  made  '  y  Professor 
Avequin,  of  Louisiana — How  Patent  Office  Seeds  should  be  used. 

15-31 


CHAPTER   II. 

DESCRIPTION  OP  THE  PLANT. 

The  Confusion  among  Agricultural  Writers— Appearance  of  the  Plant — 
Height,  &c. — Comparative  Growth  of  the  Sorgho  and  other  similar 
Plants— Weight  of  the  Stalk— Progressive  Growth— Pulling  out  the 
Tufts— Ripening— Prostration  by  Wind  Storms.  32-45 

i*  m 


X  CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER   III. 

SOIL  REQUIRED CULTURE— MANURING. 

Should  Hilling  be  Practiced  ?— Deep  Culture— Subsoil  Plow— Soaking 
Seed— Covering  Lightly — Manures — Hybridization— Cultivation — Cur- 
ing Fodder— Saving  Seed— Stripping— Stacking.  46-56 

CHAPTER  IV. 

VALUE  AS  A  FORAGE  CROP — TESTIMONY  OF  CULTIVATORS. 

Sowing  for  Fodder — Rattooning — Cutting  Fodder — Testimony  of  D.  Jay 
Browne,  Esq. — Testimony  of  Author — Testimony  of  Mr.  Gratz,  of  Ken- 
tucky— Mr.  Wray's  Remarks  at  the  Fanners'  Club— Count  Beaure 
gard's  Experience— Testimony  of  G.  de  Lacoste— Of  Gov.  Gardner,  of 
Mass. — Experience  of  C.  L.  Flint,  of  Mass. — The  Sorgho  in  Texas  this 
year — Ability  to  withstand  Drought — Curing — Its  Nutritive  Qualities — 
Size  of  Stalks  in  North  Africa — Testimony  of  Doctor  Turrel,  and 
Lacoste— Coloring  the  Bones  of  Chickens— Yield  per  Acre  of  Seed 
and  Forage — Should  not  be  allowed  to  Grow  more  than  one  Year. 

57-71 

CHAPTER  V. 

SUGAR    AND     SUGAR    MAKING A    WEST     INDIAN    SUGAR    PLANTATION- 
CUTTING CRUSHING BOILING. 

Apparatus  Required,  Fully  Illustrated— A  West  Indian  Steam  Mill- 
Cattle  Mill— Horse  Mills— Stream  Trains -Ordinary  Trains— Vacuum 
Pan— Bascule  Pan— Making  a  Small  Crop  of  Sugar— The  Cause  for 
Present  High  Prices— The  "African  Apprentice  "  System.  72-128 

CHAPTER  VI. 

SYRUP — BEST  METHODS   OF   MAKING   IT. 

Experience  ot  American  Growers — The  Seed  obtained  as  well  as  Syrup 
Apparatus  Necessary — M.  d'lvernois'  Syrup  made  without  a  Mill— Iror 


CONTENTS.  XI 

Kollers  better  than  Wooden  Rollers— Amount  of  Saccharine  Matter 
Varies  in  different  Cases — Necessity  of  Cleanliness  and  System— Col. 
Peters  obtains  468  Gallons  on  an  Acre.  129-140 

CHAPTEE  VII. 

ALCOHOLIC   PRODUCTS. 

Most  Approved  Method  of  Making  Sorgho  Alcohols— The  French  Experi- 
ments— Brandies — The  French  Government  Patronage — Enthusiasm 
of  Dr.  Turrel— J.  W.  Reid's  Experiments— Distillery— Apparatus  Il- 
lustrated with  numerous  Engravings.  141-168 

CHAPTER  VIII. 

PAPER — VINEGAR — STARCH — DYE   STUFFS — CEROSIE   OR  WAX. 

The  Quality  of  Vinegar — D.  Jay  Browne's  Testimony — Count  Mofg- 
nerie's  Process  Described — Dr.  Sicard's  Experiments,  and  his  Method 
of  Vinegar  Making — The  Value  of  the  Starch — Pearling  and  Hulling 
the  Seeds — The  Flour — Author's  Experiments  in  making  the  Dye 
Stuffs— Coloring  Ribbons— Dr.  Sicard's  Samples  of  Colors— Chemical 
Treatment  to  Procure  the  Tints — Pigments — Cerosie  or  Vegetable 
Wax — Making  Candles  in  China — Author's  Experiments — Monsieur 
Hardy's  Calculations — Corn  Stalk  Paper — Duret's  Specimens — Dr 
Sicard's  Specimens — Process  of  Paper  Making.  169-18s 

CHAPTER  IX. 

ME.  WRAY'S  PROCESS  FOR  MAKING  EXCELLENT  SUGAR  FROM  THS 
IMPHEE,  SORGHO,  SUGAR  MAPLE,  BEET,  AND  ORDINARY  SUGAR  CANE- 


THE      IMPHEE. 

BY  LEONARD  WRAY,   ESQ. 

Discovery  of  the  Plant  in  Caffraria— Previous  attempts  to  Make  Sugai 
Unsuccessful- -Botanical  Position  of  the  Imphee— The  Different  Vane 


Xli  CONTENTS. 

ties — Their  Description  and  Yields  of  Sugar — Cultivation — Manuring 
—The  Imphee  Compared  to  the  Sugar  Beet  and  Sugar  Cane — 
Ameircan  Notes  for  1857  on  the  Imphee.  193-235 


APPENDIX. 

Award  of  Medal  to  Mr.  Levering— Condensed  Reports  of  Experiments 
— Feeding  Stock  with  Sorgho — Sorgho  Paper — Eeport  on  the  Botan- 
ical Eank  of  the  Sorgho  and  Imphee — J.  S.  Lovering's  Experiments 
— Application  of  Lovering's  Process — Letter  from  Louis  Vilmorin — 
Chemical  Researches  on  the  Sorgho  Sucre — Chemical  Composition 
of  the  Sorgho— Author's  Translation  of  Pamphlets  of  M.  Bourdais— 
Count  Beauregard — Avequin — Duret — Vilmorin — Hardy — History  of 
the  Sorgho  in  the  Southern  States,  by  D.  Redmond.  236-352 


PART  I. 


THE 


OK 

CHINESE    SUGAR   CANE. 


CHAPTEE   I. 

ORIGIN  AND  SUBSEQUENT  HISTORY  OF  THE  CHINESE 
SUGAR  CANE. 

INQUIRIES  into  the  early  history  of  the  Chinese  Sugar 
Cane,  disclose  the  fact  that  we  are  indebted  for  this  new 
addition  to  our  agricultural  riches,  (as  for  the  ordinary 
sugar  cane,)  to  that  mysterious  country  whose  name  it 
bears,  and  whose  agricultural  products  are  only  by  slow 
degrees  being  placed  in  the  possession  of  the  civilized 
nations  of  the  world.  When  we  consider  the  jealous 
exclusion  of  foreigners,  the  difficulty  of  pursuing  investi- 
gations into  either  the  literature,  manners,  customs,  or 
statistics  of  China,  and  the  comparatively  late  date  at 
which  any  communication  has  been  opened  with  it,  there 
will  be  little  cause  for  wonder  that  the  plant  concerning 
which  our  investigations  are  about  to  be  made,  should 
have  but  just  been  placed  within  the  reach  of  the 
American  farmer.  Nor  can  we  consider  the  objection  as 
valid,  that  if  it  really  be  rich  in  a  product  which  at  the 
present  day  bears  a  high  commercial  value,  we  should 
certainly  have  been  made  acquainted  with  it  before ;  for 
our  past  experience  with  Chinese  productions  certainly 
warrants  the  belief,  that  not  only  may  the  Sorgho  be 

[15] 


16  THE  CHINESE  SUGAB  CANE. 

fully  worthy  of  the  encomiums  which,  have  been  bestowed 
upon  it  by  its  various  European  cultivators,  but  that  there 
may  be  in  use  in  China  other  plants  of  inestimable  value, 
which  have  not  as  yet  been  brought  to  our  attention  at  all. 

As  a  corroboration  of  this  position,  we  have  only 
to  remember  the  early  history  of  the  sugar  cane  cul- 
tivated in  our  southern  states.  The  art  of  cultivating 
the  sugar  cane  was  practiced  in  China  from  the  highest 
antiquity ;  and  yet,  so  moderate  were  the  means  of 
intercourse  with  that  nation,  that  it  was  unknown  to  the 
ancient  Egyptians,  Jews,  Greeks,  or  Eomans;  and  it 
was  not  until  the  end  of  the  thirteenth  century  that  it 
passed  into  Arabia.  From  Arabia  it  was  carried  by  the 
merchants  to  Egypt,  Nubia,  and  Ethiopia.  The  Moors 
obtained  it  from  Egypt,  and  the  Spaniards  from  the 
Moors.  In  the  fifteenth  century  the  cane  was  intro- 
duced into  the  Canary  islands  by  the  Spaniards,  and 
subsequently  into  Madeira  by  the  Portuguese ;  thence 
it  found  its  way  into  the  West  India  Islands  and 
the  Brazils.  Previous  to  the  year  1466,  sugar  was 
known  in  Europe  only  as  a  medicine,  brought,  as  were 
costly  spices,  from  the  East,  and  bearing  the  name  of 
"  Indian  salt ; "  and  though  it  was  cultivated  in  a  few 
places  on  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean  sea,  still  it 
was  not  more  generally  used  on  the  Continent. 

With  these  historical  facts  in  view,  how  shall  we  be 
authorized  in  the  assertion  that  the  Chinese  Sugar  Cane 
should  have  of  right  been  known  to  us  before  ?  The  fact 
is,  that  were  it  not  for  the  merest  accident,  even  to  this 
day  we  should  not  have  been  called  upon  to  discuss  its 
merits,  or  have  been  put  in  possession  of  its  riches. 


OEIGIN   AND   JEISTOBY.  17 

From  the  venerable  Father  Du  Halde  we  learn  that 
there  existed,  even  in  his  time,  in  China,  in  the  province 
of  Se  Chuen,  situated  in  the  western  part  of  the  Empire, 
a  cane  which  produced  excellent  sugar,  and  it  is  sup- 
posed by  Dr.  Sicard  that  this  is  the  same  plant  which 
has  been  brought  to  Europe.  Ldon  de  Eosny,  a  dis- 
tinguished philologist  of  France,  has,  at  the  request  of 
M.  G.  de  Lacoste,  searched  the  Chinese  and  Egyptian 
Archives  in  the  Imperial  Library  at  Paris,  and  speaks 
as  follows  concerning  the  Chinese  Sugar  Cane  or  Sorgho : 


JAPANESE  ACCOUNTS  OF  THE   SORGHO- 

"  The  treatises  on  agriculture,  and  various  other 
works,  in  the  Chinese  and  Egyptian  department  of  the 
Imperial  Library,  contain  several  chapters  exclusively 
upon  the  sorghos;  but  their  authors  do  not  seem  to 
have  divided  the  varieties  in  such  a  manner  as  to  make 
them  correspond  with  those  which  we  recognize  in 
Europe.  Besides  the  common  Chinese  and  Japanese 
names,  Sorgho  is  attached  successively  to  other 
graminea  which  should  not  be,  according  to  our  system, 
embraced  in  this  species.  The  Japanese,  who,  in  respect 
to  Agriculture,  are  eminently  more  advanced  than  all 
other  people,  even  than  the  Chinese  themselves,  cultivate 
the  sorgho  to  extract  from  it  sugar  and  alcohol ;  but  in 
the  works  which  we  possess,  no  mention  is  made  of  the 
coloring  principle  which  is  extracted  from  its  seed. 
However,  it  is  probable  that  it  is  not  unknown  to  them, 
and  that  if  we  had  at  Paris  a  richer  collection  of 
Japanese  books,  we  would  .find  in  them  valuable  and 


18  THE   CHINESE   SUGAR  CANE. 

interesting  investigations  on  this  head.  We  must 
remember,  however,  that  the  Chinese  and  Japanese 
synonyms  of  the  Holcus  saccharatus  are  not  yet  clearly 
established  by  botanists  and  orientalists.  Nevertheless 
it  seems  certain  that  under  the  name  of  Kibi  the 
Japanese  designate  several  species  of  the  sorgho ;  that 

the    Holcus   sorghum  corresponds  to  JS   (Tsi)  of  the 

Chinese,  and  that  sfef  (Chu)  is  probably  a  Holcus  sac- 
charatus. 

ITS  EXHIBITION  AT  THE  FAIR  AT  MOSCOW- 

"We  have  a  further  evidence  of  the  fact  that  it  is  cul- 
tivated in  China  in  an  article  which  we  find  in  the 
journal  "  L'Utile  etl'Agreable,"  in  its  number  for  the 
month  of  April,  1855.  The  writer  says  at  Shanghae  the 
plant  is  cultivated  under  the  name  of  the  North  China 
Sugar  Cane.  The  Chinese  Tartars  value  it  exceedingly  ; 
and  at  the  Great  Exposition  at  Moscow,  in  the  year  1852, 
some  of  the  stalks  of  this  same  species  of  sorgho  were  ex- 
hibited under  the  title  "  Precieux  Gaoutlam  de  la  Chine" 

FIEST  APPEARANCE  IN  EUROPE. 

Its  first  appeararfce  in  Europe  dates  back  no  further 
than  the  year  1851,  at  which  time  the  Count  de 
Montigny,  being  at  that  time  Consul  of  France  at 
Shanghae,  in  China,  sent,  in  compliance  with  official 
request,  to  the  Geographical  Society  of  Paris,  a  collec- 
tion of  plants  and  seeds  which  he  found  in  China,  and 
which  he  thought  would  succeed  in  his  own  country. 


OEIGIN   AND   HISTOEY.  19 

Among  these  was  the  celebrated  Chinese  Yam  (Dios- 
corea  batatas)  and  the  Holcus  saccharatus,  under  the 
name  of  "  The  Sugar  Cane  of  the  North  of  China." 


THE  APPEARANCE  01'  MR.  WRAY'S  IMPHEE. 

Curiously  enough,  there  was  received  in  France  at 
about  the  same  time  a  quantity  of  seeds  of  a  plant 
having  apparently  the  same  properties  and  almost  the 
same  appearance  as  the  sorgho,  which  had  been  dis- 
covered on  the  south  east  coast  of  Africa,  in"  the 
country  of  the  Zulu  Kaffirs,  by  Mr.  Leonard  Wray.  The 
lucid,  but  truly  surprising  statements  made  concerning  its 
virtues  by  this  latter  gentleman,  at  once  stimulated  in  a 
most  lively  manner  investigations  into  the  properties 
of  the  Chinese  Sugar  Cane,  and  upon  comparing  the 
plants  derived  from  these  widely  separate  sources,  the 
remarkable  fact  was  made  apparent,  that  in  ability  to 
yield  crystallized  sugar,  to  afford  nourishment  for  stock, 
and  in  the  requirements  of  cultivation,  and  other  pecu- 
liarities, they  were  almost  identical,  and  much  surprise 
was  created  that  from  this  double  source,  and  as  if  cor- 
roborative the  one  of  the  other,  a  greatly  needed  sugar 
plant,  and  one  apparently  of  high  value,  should  have 
been  given  to  French  agriculture. 

THE  PRECARIOUS  POSITION  OF  THE  SORGHO. 

It  is  a  curious  instance  of  how  upon  the  slightest 
thread  depend  most  momentous  results,  when  we  con- 
sider that,  of  the  package  of  seeds  sent  by  the  Count 


20  THE  CHINESE  SUGAR  CANE. 

de  Montigny  to  the  Geographical  Society  of  Paris,  one 
only,  one  single  seed,  germinated  in  a  garden  at  Toulon  ; 
and  if  by  any  attack  of  insects,  by  injudicious  planting 
or  manuring,  by  careless  cultivation,  or  by  any  one  of  a 
thousand  possible  mischances,  the  plant  springing  from 
this  seed  had  been  destroyed,  France  at  this  day  would 
have  been  without  the  Chinese  Sugar  Cane,  and  it  may 
be  that  the  same  opportunity  would  jiot  have  been  again 
presented  for  a  great  number  of  years. 

TO  WHOM  IS  MOST  HONOR  DUE! 

Much  stress  has  been  laid  in  the  French  works  upon 
the  fact  that  the  Count  de  Montigny  introduced  the 
sugar  cane  into  France,  and  the  learned  Dr.  Turel,  Secre- 
tary of  the  Cornice  of  Toulon — struck  with  astonishment 
at  the  wonderful  results  which  the  sorgho  can  give  in 
alcoholic  products,  its  vast  importance  as  filling  a  void 
made  by  the  failure  of  the  grape  crop,  and  the  gov- 
ernmental prohibition  of  the  distillation  of  cereals — even 
goes  so  far  as  to  claim  that  to  the  Count  de  Mortigny  is 
due  as  much  honor  as  is  awarded  to  Jenner  for  his  glo- 
rious discovery  of  Vaccination.  Without  wishing  to  de- 
tract from  the  honor  due  to  the  illustrious  Ambassador,  I 
would  respectfully  urge  the  fact  that,  so  far  as  any  account 
which  we  have  at  present  goes,  the  Count  sent  the  seed 
of  the  sugar  cane  as  he  sent  other  seeds,  because  they 
were  said  by  the  Chinese  to  be  valuable,  and  because  he 
supposed  it  possible  that  their  excellences  might  be  re- 
produced, upon  experiment,  in  his  own  country.  The 
gentlemen  receiving  the  package  of  seeds  planted  them 


OKIGIN   AND   HISTOKY.  21 

as  our  American  farmers  receive  and  plant  the  packages 
sent  to  them  by  the  Patent  Office  at  Washington,  often- 
times ignorant  and  skeptical  as  to  their  value.  It  chanced 
that  into  the  hand  of  M.  Eobert,  Director  of  the  Marine 
Gardens  at  Toulon,  were  confided  a  few  seeds  of  the 
sorgho,  and  he  being  an  intelligent  and  enterprising  gen- 
tleman and  a  careful  observer,  was  desirous  of  knowing 
if,  indeed,  the  plant  would  bear  out  the  assumptions  of  its 
endorsers.  He  planted  the  seeds  with  care,  but,  to  his 
chagrin,  but  one  single  tiny  sprout  appeared  above  the 
ground ;  and  from  the  interest  which  he  took  in  it,  it  is 
to  be  supposed  that  he  continued  its  cultivation,  and  fol- 
lowed it  through  the  phases  of  vegetation  with  no  little 
apprehensions  against  the  chances  of  failure.  His  labors 
were  rewarded  by  a  plant  of  good  size,  strong  and  vigor- 
ous, from  the  roots  of  which  sprang  up  six  rattoons  or 
suckers.  The  seeds  attained  a  complete  maturity,  and 
were  distributed  to  the  Agricultural  Cornice  of  Toulon. 


SALE  OP  SEEDS  TO  YILMOEIN,  ANDRIETJX,  &  CO. 

A  gardener  of  Hydros,  who  had  received  part  of  these 
seeds,  planted  them  with  care,  and  the  next  year  gathered 
eight  hundred  seeds,  which  were  sold  to  the  house  of 
Vilmorin,  Andrieux,  &  Co.,  seed  merchants  at  Paris,  for 
eight  hundred  francs!  They  had  now  come  into  the 
hands  of  men  fully  sensible  of  their  value,  capable  both 
by  education  and  opportunity  of  investigating  their  worth, 
and  determined  to  make  them  available  to  the  public. 
The  seeds  were  planted  by  the  senior  partner  of  this 
house,  the  illustrious  M.  Louis  Yilmorin,  and  numerous 


22  THE   CHINESE   SUGAR   CANE. 

experiments  were  made  by  him  during  the  season  of 
growth,  the  results  of  which  fully  established  the  expecta- 
tions which  he  had  been  led  to  entertain,  and  gave  him 
the  basis  for  the  work  which  was  published  by  him  in 
1854,  under  the  title  of  "  Eesearches  upon  the  Sorgho 
Sucre', "  or  Chinese  Sugar  Cane. 

VAEIOUS  EXPERIMENTERS. 

Experiments  were  likewise  instituted  by  members  of 
the  Imperial  Acclimation  Society;  but  by  none  were 
they  more  zealously  pursued,  nor  more  successfully 
carried  on,  than  by  the  Compte  de  David  Beauregard. 
This  gentleman  was  so  confident  of  its  value,  that  he 
made  strenuous  efforts  to  increase  his  stock  of  seed, 
planted  the  greatest  possible  area  of  land  with  it,  and 
succeeded  so  completely  that  it  is  from  his  third  crop 
that  has  been  derived-  the  major  portion  of  the  immense 
amount  that  has  been  planted  in  the  United  States  during 
the  present  year.  In  France  we  find  it  successively 
spreading  in  the  provinces  of  la  Drome,  les  Pyrenees 
Orientales,  la  Haute-Marne,  la  Gironde,  le  Gers,  etc.,  and 
everywhere  exciting  the  greatest  attention  among  the  most 
distinguished  agriculturists ;  and  thence  it  quickly  finds  its 
way  to  that  prosperous,  albeit  lately  acquired  French 
province  of  Algeria,  where,  according  to  M.  Paul 
Madinier,  a  company  with  a  capital  of  several  millions  of 
francs  is  about  to  be  formed  to  cultivate  and  manufacture 
the  sorgho.  In  1852  there  was  imported  into  France 
from  Russia,  by  M.  Masson,  the  seed  of  another  sugar 
sorgho,  but  the  plants  which  sprung  from  them  were 
much  inferior  in  every  respect  to  those  sent  by  M. 


ORIGIN  AND   HISTOKY.  23 

Montigny.  Dr.  Sicard  says  that  upon  its  appearance  in 
Europe,  the  sorgho  was  supposed  by  various  persons  to 
be  the  millet  of  Caffraria,  Pain  des  Anges,  Sorghum 
saccharatum  of  Wil,  Holcus  docna  of  Forsk,  Holcus  sac- 
charatus  of  Linnaeus,  Andropogon  saccharatus  of  Kunth  ; 
and  somewhat  later  Mr.  Leonard  Wray  gave  to  it  the 
name  of  Imphee. 


THE  ATTEMPT  OP  PIETRO  ARDUTNO. 

Frequent  reference  is  made  in  all  the  French  works 
which  I  have  translated,  to  the  attempt  made  in  1786  by 
the  Signor  Pietro  Arduino  to  introduce  the  Holcus  sac- 
charatus from  Kaffirland  into  Italy ;  and  to  his  pub- 
lished accounts  of  his  experiments  in  sugar  mak- 
ing. His  son  collected  these  fragments  of  writing, 
added  to  them  his  own  reminiscences  of  his  father's 
experiments,  and  issued  them  in  a  separate  volume, 
in  1808  ;  but  at  the  present  day  it  is  almost  a  matter  of 
impossibility  to  procure  a  copy  of  the  work,  it  having 
passed  out  of  print.  Nothing  is  known,  however,  it 
seems  to  me,  to  distinctly  show  that  the  plants  on  which 
Dr.  Arduino's  experiments  were  undertaken  were  the 
same  as  the  sorgho  introduced  from  China ;  for  he  speaks 
of  the  seeds  being  of  a  clear  light  brown  color,  while  the 
seeds  of  our  Chinese  variety  are  of  a  very  deep  purple, 
almost  black.  His  description,  nevertheless,  exactly  cor- 
responds with  the  appearance  of  the  seeds  of  Mr.  Wray's 
imphee ;  and  hence  we  are  led  to  believe  that  it  was  in 
reality  the  African,  and  not  the  Chinese  sugar  cane  which 
was  cultivated  by  him  at  Florence.  Whether  it  was  be- 


24  THE   CHINESE   SUGAR   CANE. 

cause  of  the  troubles  which  at  that  time  convulsed  Italy 
from  one  end  to  the  other,  because  of  want  of  means  on 
his  part  for  continuing  the  experiments,  or  because  the 
plants  were  not  adapted  to  the  manufacture  of  sugar,  I 
am  not  able  to  say ;  it  is  probable  that  all  these  con- 
spired to  militate  against  the  prosecution  of  his  studies. 
But  I  think  it  very  possible  that  Dr.  Arduino  procured 
from  Africa  the  seeds  of  some  one  of  the  varieties  of  the 
imphee,  which  required  too  long  time  to  ripen  to  allow 
of  its  being  grown  in  the  climate  of  Italy ;  and  that  the 
small  amounts  of  sugar  obtained  by  him  from  the  plants 
arose  from  the  fact  that  the  maximum  of  saccharine  mat- 
ter is  only  made  present  in  the  Chinese  or  African  sugar 
canes  at  the  moment  of  their  complete  maturity. 

M.  Louis  Vilmorin,  in  his  "Eesearches,"  mentions  that 
in  a  package  of  seeds  from  Abyssinia,  sent  to  the  Museum 
in  1840,  by  M.  D'Abadie,  which  contained  about  thirty 
species  or  varieties  of  the  sorgho,  he  had  noticed  that 
some  of  the  plants  were  particularly  distinguished  from 
the  others  by  the  sweet  flavor  of  their  stalks ;  but  to  all 
intents  and  purposes,  and  so  far  as  any  practical  result 
has  eventuated,  from  1786  until  the  introduction  of  the 
Montigny  seed  and  of  that  of  Mr.  Wray  from  Kaffirland, 
there  is  a  complete  void  in  European  experience  with  the 
plant.  Considering  the  question  as  to  whom  is  due  the 
honor  of  giving  the  plant  to  European  agriculturists, 
there  should  be  no  cause  for  strife  between  the  partisans 
of  the  Count  de  Montigny  and  Mr.  Wray ;  for  it  ap- 
pearing, upon  the  testimony  of  M.  Vilmorin,  Dr.  Sicard, 
M.  Lacoste,  and  Mr.  Wray  himself,  that  the  sorgho  and 
imphee  are  not  different  varieties  of  the  same  plant,  bub 


ORIGIN   AND   HISTORY.  25 

two  different  species,  the  introducer  of  each  plant  may  be 
duly  credited  without  in  the  least  depriving  the  other  of 
appropriate  honor.  If  indeed  we  base  our  gratitude 
upon  the  amount  of  research  and  labor  given  by  the  indi- 
vidual previous  to  the  introduction  of  the  plants,  we  cer- 
tainly must  agree  that  Mr.  Wray  is  entitled  to  greater 
thanks  at  the  hands  of  the  agricultural  world  than  the 
Count  de  Montigny,  who  took  no  great  labor  to  dis- 
cover the  properties  of  the  sorgho,  but  merely  sent 
the  seed,  as  he  sent  others,  to  be  experimented  upon  in 
France. 


MR.  LEONARD  WRAY. 

Mr.  Wray  is  widely  known  to  the  sugar  planters  of  the 
world,  from  his  authorship  of  the  "  Sugar  Planters'  Com- 
panion," published  in  Calcutta  in  1843,  and  the  "Practi- 
cal Sugar  Planter,"  published  in  London  in  1848,  and 
republished  in  French,  Spanish,  Portuguese,  and  Dutch. 
In  1850,  he  left  the  East  Indies  for  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope,  whence  he  went  to  Kaffirland,  and  found  the 
Zulu  Kaffirs  cultivating  the  imphee  around  their  huts, 
not  for  the  purpose  of  manufacturing  crystallized  sugar 
or  obtaining  any  other  of  its  products  with  a  commercial 
view,  but  merely  for  the  purpose  of  chewing  and  sucking 
the  stalks.  He  quickly  saw  of  what  value  <mch  plants 
were  likely  to  become  to  Europe  and  America,  and  ap- 
plied himself  to  their  study,  their  culture,  and  manufac- 
ture into  sugar,  etc.  After  having  fully  satisfied  himself 
on  these  points,  he  returned  to  Europe,  and  planted 
patches  in  England,  France,  and  Belgium;  applied  for 
2 


26  THE  CHINESE  SUGAR  CANE. 

patents  in  various  countries ;  addressed  the  French  gov- 
ernment through  Marshal  Vaillant,  Minister  of  War ; 
exhibited  specimens  of  sugar  and  the  plants  to  Mr. 
Buchanan,  then  American  Minister  at  London ;  and  subse- 
quently established  the  culture  of  the  imphee  in  Turkey, 
Egypt,  the  West  Indies,  the  Brazils,  the  Mauritius,  Aus- 
tralia, and  finally  in  this  country.  Instead  of  one  variety 
as  we  have  of  the  Chinese  Sugar  Cane,  he  has  discovered 
among  the  Kaffirs  no  less  than  sixteen  distinct  kinds  of 
imphee,  of  various  degrees  of  saccharine  richness,  and 
differing  very  widely  in  the  time  required  for  their  ma- 
turity. 

The  gift  that  he  has  thus  made  to  our  agriculture  may 
be  estimated  when  we  reflect  that  we  have  almost  every 
range  of  climate  known  in  the  world — from  the  torrid  and 
fervent  heats  of  the  tropical  zone  to  the  most  rigorous 
winters  of  the  North ;  and  his  plants  requiring  in  some 
instances  but  ninety  days  to  run  through  the  whole  course 
of  vegetation  and  ripen  their  seeds,  others  of  greater 
saccharine  richness  requiring  a  more  lengthened  season 
than  is  necessary  for  the  ordinary  sugar  cane,  he  has 
thus  given  to  the  farmers  of  every  section  of  the  country 
the  opportunity  to  select  from  out  his  collection  of  varie- 
ties some  one  peculiarly  adapted  to  the  latitude  in  which 
he  resides.  Sugar,  by  this  means,  supposing  his  anticipa- 
tions to  be  realized,  and  the  experience  of  Governor  Ham- 
mond and  other  southern  gentlemen  to  be  a  prestige  of 
what  we  can  anticipate  in  future,  will  become  no  longer 
even  such  a  luxury  as  it  is  at  present,  but  rather  will  as- 
sume its  proper  position  as  a  cheap,  readily  obtainable 
article  of  common  use.  It  is  well  to  remark  in  this  place, 


OEIGIN   AND   USTOBY.  27 

that  in  the  year  1854,  in  the  month  of  September,  an 
application  from  Mr.  Wray  for  a  patent  on  his  process 
was  filed  at  bur  Government  Patent  Office  by  Charles  F. 
Stansbury,  Esq.,  acting  in  his  name ;  but  an  error  having 
been  made  in  his  application,  it  was  withdrawn  until  a 
more  favorable  occasion  should  present  itself.  In  the 
year  1856,  Mr.  Wray  obtained  the  large  silver  medal  of 
the  Exposition  Universelle  at  Paris,  for  his  imphee  sugar, 
alcohol,  seeds,  and  plants,  and  the  French  government, 
moreover,  granted  to  him  twenty -five  hundred  acres  of 
land  in  Algeria, to  encourage  in  that  colony  the  establish- 
ment of  this  important  cultivation. 


INTRODUCTION  OP  THE  SORGHO  INTO  AMERICA. 

In  the  month  of  November,  1854,  D.  Jay  Browne,  Esq., 
of  the  United  States  Patent  Office,  returned  to  America 
from  Europe,  bringing  with  him  a  quantity  of  the  seed 
of  the  Chinese  Sugar  Cane,  which  he  had  procured  from 
M.  Yilmorin,  the  gentleman  previously  referred  to. 
These  seeds  were  distributed  to  various  persons  through- 
out this  country ;  but  the  feeling  of  suspicion  with 
which  all  now  things  are  more  or  less  viewed,  tended  to 
confine  this  experiment  of  cultivation  to  a  few  of  the 
more  enterprising  farmers,  until  the  formal  report,  ad- 
dressed by  Gen.  J.  II.  Hammond,  late  Governor  of  South 
Carolina,  to  the  Secretary  of  the  Beach  Island,  South 
Carolina,  Farmers'  Club,  awakened  general  attention, 
by  showing  the  successful  results  of  his  own  cultivation 
and  manufacture.  Upon  its  history,  in  the  southern 
states,  I  do  not  propose  to  dwell  at  length,  because  the 


28  THE  CHINESE  SUGAR  CANE. 

full  details  are  given  in  the  excellent  report  which  has 
been  furnished  to  me,  through  the  politeness  of  Mr. 
Redman.  Suffice  it  to  say,  that  upon  the  publication  of 
w  circular,  containing  the  experiments  of  Colonel  Peters, 
•-.aid  the  notice  of  the  syrup  which  was  exhibited  by  nim 
v  t  the  Fair  of  the  United  States  Agricultural  Society, 
a  October  of  the  past  year,  the  general  excitement  upon 
he  subject  was  at  once  considerably  augmented;  and 
-he  subsequent  appearance  of  the  reports  to  the  French 
'ifrnister  of  War,  the  experience  of  American  farmers  in 
lifferent  parts  of  the  country,  the  excellent  pamphlets 
Df  Mr.  J.  F.  C.  Hyde,  of  Massachusetts,  and  Mr.  Charles 
F.  Stansbury  of  Washington,  all  have  united  in  lending 
this  increase  to  the  all-prevalent  interest ;  and  the  result 
has  been,  that  during  the  present  year,  the  seed  of  the 
Chinese  Sorgho  has  been  imported  by  the  ton  by  differ- 
ent seedsmen,  and  by  the  agencies  which  we  have  here- 
tofore mentioned,  it  has  been  scattered  throughout  the 
length  and  breath  of  the  land. 

In  1855, 1  received  from  Paris,  the  "  Researches  on  the 
Sugar  Sorgho,"  by  M.  Yilmorin,  and  although  at  that 
time  but  very  little  attention  had  been  directed  to  the 
plant,  yet  presuming,  from  a  perusal  of  it,  that  it  might 
have  some  future  value,  I  translated  it,  entire,  for  the 
"  Working  Farmer." 


SUGAR  MADE  BY  PROFESSOR  AVEQTUN  OP  LOUISIANA. 

Whilst  it  was  in  course  of  publication.  I  corresponded 
with  persons  in  different  parts  of  the  United  States,  de- 
siring to  call  their  attention  to  its  merits ;  and  having 


OEIGIN  AND    H1STOEY.  'J9 

ascertained  from  Messrs.  Parker,  White,  &  Gannett, 
seedsmen,  of  Boston,  that  the  editors  of  the  "  New  Or- 
leans Bee  "  had  received  samples  of  sugar  from  Professor 
Avequin,  of  Louisiana,  I  opened  a  correspondence 
with  that  distinguished  gentleman,  and  received  from 
him  the  editorial  notice  of  the  "Bee,"  and  an  article, 
written  by  himself,  for  that  paper,  which  I  translated, 
and  which  will  be  found  in  subsequent  pages  of  this 
work.  The  editors  of  the  "  Bee "  clearly  acknowledge 
the  receipt  of  a  loaf  of  sorgho  sugar  made  by  Professor 
Avequin ;  and  I  regret  much  at  not  having  been  able, 
during  the  past  two  years,  to  have  communicated  with 
this  gentleman,  and  thus  have  been  enabled  to  place  my 
readers  in  possession  of  all  the  facts  concerning  his  ex- 
periments. 


HOW  THE  PATENT  OFFICE  SEEDS  SHOULD  BE  USED. 

We  have  thus  narrowed  down  the  circle  of  our  in- 
quiries to  the  introduction  of  the  plant,  and  its  domes- 
tication among  us.  In  considering  the  slight  contingency 
upon  which  hung  the  chance  of  its  having  been  put  in  the 
possession  of  the  French  agriculturists,  it  seems  to  me  a 
useful  lesson  may  be  derived  to  guide  us  in  our  practice  at 
home.  Although  the  General  Government  makes  but  very 
slight  appropriations  to  the  cause  of  agriculture,  barely 
begrudging  a  miserable  pittance  out  of  the  superfluous 
revenues  which  it  has  collected,  yet  it  does  appropriate  a 
sum,  however  small  it  may  be,  for  the  purchase  of  seeds  and 
cuttings  for  distribution  to  our  farmers,  and  every  year 
this  service  is  perform  3d  by  the  department  of  the  Patent 


30  THE   CHINESE   SUGAR  CANE. 

Office.  Now  if  we  really,  as  American  farmers,  desire  to 
have  the  Government  not  only  continue  its  present  appro- 
priations but  increase  them,  we  certainly  should  not  take 
the  seeds  and  cuttings  which  it  now  gives  to  us,  and  by 
the  most  culpable  carelessness  allow  them  to  be  utterly 
lost,  thrown  away,  and  rendered  unproductive  of  any 
benefits  to  our  farmers.  In  the  majority  of  cases,  seeds 
received  from  the  Patent  Office,  with  foreign  names 
printed  upon  the  packages,  are  looked  at  as  curiosities, 
bitten  to  see  how  they  taste,  placed  upon  the  mantel- 
shelf for  the  examination  of  visitors,  and  subsequently 
put  into  the  fire,  or  thrown  into  the  top  of  some  old 
closet,  because  the  farmer  cannot  find  time  to  plant  them 
with  care,  and  investigate  their  qualities.  It  is  highly 
possible  that  among  the  seeds  distributed  for  the  last  few 
years  by  the  Patent  Office,  there  may  have  been  a  number 
which,  if  they  had  been  properly  planted  and  taken  care 
of,  would  have  been  productive  of  the  greatest  good  to 
this  country.  Are  we  not  confined  as  to  cotton-growing 
to  a  small  section  of  the  southern  states  ?  Would  it  not 
be  a  source  of  immense  wealth  to  our  country  if  we  could 
find  some  plant  which  would  be  a  substitute  for  the  cotton, 
and  which  could  be  produced  in  the  northern  and  north- 
western states,  as  in  this  instance  we  have  found  a  new 
sugar  cane  having  a  number  of  varieties,  and  some  of 
them  specially  adapted  to  the  cold  climates  of  the  north  ? 
and  who  can  say  but  that  among  these  seeds  which  have 
thus  been  lost  to  our  farmers,  there  may  not  have  been 
some  one  or  more  which  would  have  produced  a  substi- 
tute for  the  cotton  plant  ?  Many  of  the  seeds  are  brought 
home  by  the  officers  of  our  Exploring  Expeditions,  and 


ORIGIN   AND   HISTORY.  31 

those  connected  with  ships  of  war  cruising  in  various 
parts  of  the  world.  They  are  sometimes  obtained  by 
them  without  the  slightest  knowledge  of  their  properties 
or  value ;  and  it  may  be  that  from  some  distant  island  in 
the  Pacific,  or  some  rarely- visited  portion  of  the  African 
coast,  seeds  have  been  brought  to  this  country  which 
would  have  given  us  enduring  sources  of  revenue. 


CIIAPTEK    II. 

DESCRIPTION     OF    THE     PLANT. 


CONFUSION  AMONG  AGRICULTURAL  WRITERS. 

IN  proceeding  to  consider  the  botanical  rank  of  the 
Chinese  Sugar  Cane,  we  find  ourselves  at  once  involved 
in  the  midst  of  conflicting  assumptions  on  the  part  of 
various  investigators.  So  much  confusion  has  arisen  in 
regard  to  the  plant,  that  M.  Greenland,  an  associate  of 
M.  Vilmorin,  has  endeavored  to  extricate  us  from  this 
confusion,  and  is  at  the  present  time  engaged  in  the  pro- 
duction of  an  agricultural  work,  wliich  will  set  the  mat- 
ter at  rest;  in  the  mean  time,  from  the  testimony  of  all 
observers,  we  are  authorized  to  accord  to  the  plant  the 
name  Holcus  saccharatus.  Although,  as  M.  Vilmorin 
says,  it  is  inexact  as  to  its  generic  character,  yet  it  has 
tlie  advantage  of  being  known,  and  of  not  having  been 
applied  to  other  plants.  Our  seedsmen  and  agricultural 
writers  seem  bent  upon  not  only  maintaining  this  confu- 
sion of  names,  but  also  of  increasing  the  list  of  synonyms, 
by  giving  to  the  Sorgho  sucre  in  turn  the  names  of  half  a 
dozen  other  plants.  We  must  expect  this,  however ; 
but  in  the  meanwhile,  and  until  the  result  of  M.  Green- 
land's labors  are  known,  we  are  probably  authorized  to 
call  it  the  Holcus  saccharatus.* 

*  Since  writing  the  above,  we  have  received  from  Dr.  Charles  T. 
Jackson,  one  of  the  State  As^ayers  to  the  State  of  Massachusetts,  the 
[32] 


THE  CHINESE  SUGAR  CAKV 


DESCRIPTION   OF   THE   PLANT.    .  33 

APPEARANCE  OF  THE   PLANT. 

In  comparing  the  appearance  of  the  sorgho  with  that 
of  our  common  maize  or  Indian  corn,  we  are  struck  with 
the  superiority  of  the  former,  in  respect  to  the  exceeding 
grace  of  appearance  which  it  presents.  Like  the  latter, 

following  paper  upon  the  botanical  position  of  the  plant,  which  was 
read  by  Mr.  Charles  J.  Sprague,  Botanist  to  the  Boston  Society  of 
Natural  History,  at  its  meeting  of  April  15th.  By  it,  it  will  be  seen, 
that  although  the  plant  was  by  Linnasus  termed  the  Holcus  sacchar- 
atus, it  had  undergone  subsequent  subdivisions  ;  and,  as  he  says  him- 
self, the  specific  name  is  a  matter  of  some  doubt,  so  that  it  is  as  well, 
perhaps,  to  allow  it  to  retain  the  name  of  Holcus  saccharatus,  until 
we  obtain  further  advices. 

"  The  plant  was  called  Holcus  saccharatus  by  Linnaeus  ;  but  when 
this  genus  underwent  a  subdivision  by  subsequent  botanists,  this  spe- 
cies was  placed  by  some  in  that  of  Andropogon,  by  others  in  that  of 
Sorghum.  These  two  genera  are  closely  allied.  Some  of  the  best 
authorities  consider  the  difference  so  slight  as  to  warrant  their  union 
into  one.  Steudel  arranges  Andropogon,  Sorghum,  and  Trachypogou 
all  under  one  head — Andropogon.  Lindley  italicizes  Sorghum  in  the 
last  edition  of  his  "  Vegetable  Kingdom,"  and  places  it  beneath  Trachy- 
pogon,  evidently  considering  them  equivalent.  Dr.  Gray  retains  Sor- 
ghum for  our  only  native  species  (S.  nutans)  in  his  last  edition  of  the 
Manual,  considering  the  genus  a  good  one. 

"  It  is  between  Andropogou  and  Sorghum,  therefore,  that  we  must 
choose  in  reference  to  this  particular  species. 

"  The  differences  between  them  are  these — 

Andropogon.  Sorghum. 

"  Inflorescence  spicate.  "  Inflorescence  paniculate. 

Spikelets  in  pairs,  only  one  be-        Spikelets  in  twos  or  threes,  cert- 
iug  fertile.  tral  one  only  being  fertile. 

Glumes    herbaceous    o?    mem-        Glumes  hard,  coriaceous,  or  in- 
branaceous.  durated. 

Raehis  hai-ry.  Eachis  smooth. 

2* 


84  THE   CHINESE   SUGAR   CANE. 

it  presents  a  tall  straight  stalk,  marked  at  intervals  with 
knots  or  nodes,  and  from  these,  on  alternate  sides  of  the 
plant,  spring  long,  spreading,  tapering,  and  drooping 
leaves.  The  stalk  very  gradually  decreases  in  diameter 
from  the  base  to  the  top.  Its  outer  coating  is  smooth 
and  silicious,  like  the  stalks  of  the  maize,  which  becomes 
harder  as  the  water  and  starch  and  the  sugar  of  the  plant 
become  converted  into  woody  fiber,  and  more  silex  is 
deposited  on  the  outside.  The  seed  grows  upon  the 
eight  or  ten  separate  stems  which  group  together  to 
form  the  tuft  at  the  top  of  the  plant ;  and,  unlike  the 
maize,  this -is  the  only  fruit  produced  by  the  plant.  When 
the  tassel  first  emerges  from  its  sheath,  the  seeds  are 
nothing  but  a  soft  green  husk,  which  by  degrees,  and  in 

"  If  these  differences  shall  eventually  render  the  genera  sufficiently 
distinct  to  establish  a  universally  recognized  separation,  then  this  plant 
must  be  placed  under  that  of  Sorghum. 

"  The  specific  name  is  a  matter  of  some  doubt.  Both  S .  vulgaro 
and  S.  saccharatum  are  recorded  as  distinct  species  ;  but  there  is  fre- 
quently a  query  appended  to  the  latter.  Some  of  our  best  authorities 
incline  to  the  opinion  that  these  two  are  identical,  the  differences  be- 
tween thefo  being  due  to  the  long  cultivation  which  the  plant  has  un- 
dergone. "We  know  that  some  of  the  grasses  have  sported  into  nume- 
rous varieties  ;  and  it  is  very  probable  that  the  Broom  Corn,  Doura 
or  Guinea  Corn,  and  the  Chinese  Sugar  Cane,  are  all  descended  from 
one  and  the  same  stock. 

"  If  we  accept  this  as  a  fact,  then  the  plant  should  be  called  SOR- 
GHUM VULGAEE,  Pers.  var.  saccharatum,  L. ;  but  as  the  latter  name  is 
so  extensively  known,  and  as  there  is  still  some  doubt  as  to  the  ident- 
ity, it  may  be  as  well  to  continue  the  name  Sorghum  saccharatum. 

"  The  true  Sugar  Cane,  Saccharum  officinarum,  belongs  to  the  same 
tribe  of  grasses,  differing  in  the  ample  inflorescence,  which  is  paniculate, 
and  drooping  with  downy  pedicles  and  florets." 


DESCRIPTION   OF  THE   PLANT.  35 

like  manner  to  wheat,  becomes  filled  with  farinaceous 
matter,  and  the  grains  are  plump  and  hard.  The  soft 
green  pulp,  as  the  plant  approaches  maturity,  undergoes 
transitions  in  color,  changing  to  violet,  brown,  and 
finally,  to  a  purple,  almost  black.  When  this  latter  color 
appears,  the  plant  has  reached  its  last  stage  of  vegeta- 
tion, and  will  give  its  greatest  amount  of  sugar.  The 
stalk,  as  compared  with  that  of  the  maize,  is  more  slender 
and  soft.  The  adhesion  of  the  parts  above  and  below 
the  knots  is  not  so  firm,  for  I  have  found  in  the  crops 
which  we  have  cultivated  at  the  Farm  School,  that  a 
gust  of  wind  would  break  the  plants  off  at  the  knots 
when  they  attained  considerable  height,  in  a  wet  season. 
Another  peculiarity  distinguishing  the  sorgho  stalk  from 
that  of  the  corn,  is,  that  as  the  plant  approaches  maturity, 
we  see  a  whitish  effloresence  appear  upon  the  parts  un- 
derneath the  foot-stalks  of  the  leaf.  This  is  a  dry,  hard 
powder,  and  is  known  to  the  French,  under  the  name 
of  cerosie,  or  vegetable  wax.  Of  its  uses  and  probable 
value,  we  will  speak  in  the  appropriate  place. 


HEIGHT,  ETC. 

The  sorgho  attains  different  heights  as  the  circum- 
stances controlling  its  growth  are  more  or  less  favorable, 
and  on  some  soils,  the  deep  black  loam  for  instance,  grows 
to  an  enormous  height,  as  high  as  sixteen  or  eighteen  feet, 
while,  on  poorer  soils,  on  gravels  or  gravelly  loams,  or 
colder  soils,  it  is  shorter ;  but  on  dry,  poor  soils  its  juices 
have  a  greater  tendency  to  crystallize.  My  own.  crop 
averaged  the  last  season  eleven  feet  in  height.  Some  of  the 


36  THE  CHINESE  SUGAR  CANE. 

stalks  were  full  fifteen  feet,  and  but  a  small  proportion  were 
nine  and  ten.  The  leaves  of  the  plants  being  more  slender 
than  those  of  the  corn,  and  the  joints  being  farther 
apart,  it  will  not  give  the  same  amount  of  green  fodder 
to  the  acre,  if  the  plants  are  allowed  to  attain  their  com- 
plete maturity ;  but  this  is  only  a  comparative  loss,  for 
by  suffering  them  to  stand  until  this  time,  we  procure 
what  we  cannot  obtain  from  the  corn — a  full  crop  of 
sugar ;  therefore  all  the  forage  which  we  obtain  is  so 
much  actual  profit.  The  root  of  the  sorgho  is  exceed- 
ingly hard  and  strong.  Where  the  ground  has  been  well 
disturbed,  the  roots  run  to  a  great  depth,  and  acquire 
very  great  strength  ;  so  much  so,  that  it  was  a  matter  of 
great  difficulty  for  a  man  to  pull  up  a  stand  of  sorgho  on 
our  place,  even  after  the  plants  had  been  cut  off  from  it, 
and  they  had  stood  for  a  month  or  two.  There  is  a  very 
marked  difference  between  the  tuft  of  the  Chinese  Sugar 
Cane  and  some  of  the  varieties  of  the  Imphee  ;  but  there 
is  a  curious  resemblance  between  the  Shla-goo-va  and  the 
sorgho  tufts.  The  stems  of  the  tufts  of  the  Chinese  Sugar 
Cane  are  some  of  them  four  or  five  inches  in  length,  and 
when  covered  with  seeds,  plump  and  ripe,  by  degrees, 
of  course,  droop  over  towards  the  ground,  thus  giving 
the  tuft  a  feathery  appearance ;  but  the  seed  heads  of  the 
Yim-bis-chu-a-pa  present  a  compact  1  unch  of  upright 
growing  stems,  albeit  they  are  all  laden  with  seeds,  and 
resemble  more  the  pompon  of  a  military  cap. 

In  judging  of  the  ripeness  of  the  imphee  seed,  of 
course  the  cultivator  will  not  be  misguided  by  any 
previous  experience  with  the  Chinese  Sugar  Cane ;  for 
while  in  on*  ease  he  would  wait  for  the  seed<  to  turn 


DESCRIPTION   OF   THE    PLANT.  37 

black  befcrs  lie  would  feel  authorized  to  harvest  the 
stalks,  on  the  other  hand,  the  seeds  of  some  varieties  of 
the  African  Sugar  Cane,  when  they  are  fully  ripe,  are  not 
darker  in  color  than  a  light  buff,  and  its  only  distinction 
then  would  be  their  plumpness  and  hardness. 

It  would  be  a  matter  of  impossibility  for  any  body  but 
a  most  experienced  hand  to  distinguish  between  a  field 
of  sorgho  and  one  of  ordinary  broom  corn  in  the  early 
stages  of  its  growth ;  for  in  appearance,  size  of  leaves, 
covering,  and  general  characteristics,  it  is  identical.  A 
difference  will  be  found,  however,  if  rows  of  corn  and 
rows  of  sorgho  should  be  planted  together.  So  far  as 
rapidity  of  growth  is  concerned,  the  sorgho  is  not  a  fast 
grower  at  first,  and  for  this  reason  it  would  be  very  apt 
to  discourage  persons  experimenting  with  it  for  the  first 
time,  as  it  did  myself. 

COMPARATIVE  GROWTH  OP  THE  SORGHO  AND  OTHER  SIMILAR  PLANTS. 

An  instance  of  the  comparative  rapidity  of  growth 
will  be  found  at  page  11  et  seq.  of  the  excellent  work  of 
Dr.  Sicard.*  We  quote  as  follows  : 

'  We  sowed,  in  a  warm  bed,  upon  the  same  day,  at 
the  same  hour,  on  the  same  kind  of  soil,  seeds  of  the 
white  sorgho,  the  Kaffir  sorgho,  broom  corn,  and  the 
Chinese  Sugar  Cane.  The  seventh  day  the  sorgho  was 
out  of  the  ground,  the  broom  corn  appeared  in  the  after- 
noon of  the  same  day.  On  the  following  morning  we 

*  "  Monographic  de  la  Canne  a  Sucre  de  la  Chine,  dite  Sorgho  a 
Sucre,"  par  le  Docteur  Adrien  Sicard,  Secretary  of  the  Horticultural 
Society  of  Marseilles,  etc.  Marseilles,  1850. 


58  THE   CHINESE   SUGAR   CANE. 

saw  appear  the  Kaffir  sorgho  ;    and  two  days  later  the 
Chinese  Sugar  Cane." 

Once  out  of  the  ground,  the  plants  develop  their  leaves. 
It  was  not  the  same  with  the  Chinese  Sugar  Cane.  The  lat- 
ter remained  for  a  LNng  time  before  developing  its  leaves, 
its  increase  was  very  slow.  Thus  we  see  that,  as  compared 
with  broom  corn,  the  Chinese  Sugar  Cane  requires  three 
days  more  to  make  its  appearance  above  the  ground.  A 
great  difference  is  observable  in  the  comparative  flexi- 
bility of  the  leaves  of  the  sugar  cane  and  those  of  others 
of  its  congeners.  The  Chinese  Sugar  Cane  leaves  can  be 
bent  and  rebent  into  perfect  circles  without  breaking 
them,  whilst  the  others  will  snap  in  two. 


WEIGHT  OF  THE  STALK. 

Dr.  Sicard,  from  a  desire  to  relieve  the  questionings  in 
regard  to  the  comparative  weight  of  the  Chinese  Sugar 
Cane  and  the  broom  corn,  took  from  each  one  of  these  of 
the  same  length,  about  twenty-nine  inches,  and  that  there 
might  be  no  mistake  as  to  the  identity  of  their  period  of 
development,  measured  their  diameter.  These  precau- 
tions taken,  he  weighed  them,  and  found  that  the  broom 
corn  weighed  thirty-five  grammes,  and  the  sugar  cane  one 
hundred  and  thirty-seven  grammes.  Let  those,  then,  who 
say  that  the  Chinese  Sugar  Cane  is  no  more  than  broom 
corn,  that  the  juice  of  the  one  is  as  good  as  the  other, 
compare  this  result,  which,  from  our  experience  of  the 
comparative  weight  of  the  two  plants,  (though  we  have 
made  no  precise  experiment,)  we  should  think  would  be 
a  faithful  indication  of  the  differences,  in  the  vast  majority 


DESCRIPTION    OF   THE   PLANT.  39 

of  cases.  Dr.  Sicard  gives  in  his  book  a  very  interesting 
and  minute  account  of  the  growth  of  the  sugar  cane,  from 
the  putting  forth  of  the  first,  radicle  until  the  complete 
maturity  of  the  plant.  Our  space  prevents  our  following 
him  in  detail,  as  we  should  be  pleased 


PROGRESSIVE  GROWTH. 

The  first  effort  at  vegetation  is,  of  course,  the  swelling 
of  the  seed,  the  separation  of  the  valves  enclosing  the 
germ  of  the  plant,  and  the  putting  forth  of  a  little  root. 
This  root,  unlike  the  others  surrounding  it,  is  of  a  violet 
hue.  Its  covering  is  impregnated  with  a  tint  on  the  in- 
side of  the  hull.  The  surrounding  roots  are  of  a  yellow- 
ish color.  The  plant  rarely  springs  up  on  a  single  stalk. 
A  short  time  after  the  appearance  of  the  stalk,  suckers 
are  formed,  which  commence  to  grow  upwards.  The 
cane  throws  out  in  rudiments  each  one  of  the  internodes 
that  it  must  subsequently  develop,  and  each  one  of  these 
bears  a  leaf,  which  acquires  dimensions  larger  or  smaller, 
according  to  the  soil  upon  which  it  is  grown.  The  time 
required  for  the  cane  to  acquire  its  full  development,  is 
about  five  months;  but  it  will  be  more  protracted  or 
brief,  as  the  soil  is  suited  to  its  nature.  In  this  respect, 
the  planter  will  be  subject  to  the  same  vicissitudes  as  he 
now  has  in  the  cultivation  of  the  ordinary  sugar  cane  ; 
and  we  opine  that,  like  this  latter  plant,  the  Chinese  cane 
will  be  found  to  grow  exceedingly  well  on  the  soil  of  a 
certain  plantation,  and  on  the  one  immediately  adjoining 
it,  give  but  meager  results. 

The  present  season  is,  perhaps,  as  unfavorable  a  one 


10  THE   CHINESE   SUGAK   CANE. 

for  the  institution  of  experiments  with  the  new  plants  as 
we  could  have  had ;  for,  whereas,  the  plant  requires  a 
warm,  dry,  season  to  develop  its  excellences,  and  to 
attain  a  rapidity  of  .growth,  we  have  this  year  been 
subjected,  since  the  earliest  portion  of  spring,  to  a  con- 
tinued series  of  drenching  rains  and  untimely  showers. 
The  soil,  in  consequence,  has  been  kept  cool  and  moist, 
and  the  temperature  of  the  air  has  been  so  reduced  that 
even  the  corn  crop  in  the  vicinity  of  our  farm  is  very 
much  more  backward  than  it  should  be  at  this  season  of 
the  year.  One  of  the  largest  planters  in  the  southern 
states  informed  me,  a  short  time  since,  that  he  had 
frequently  seen  corn  in  the  month  of  June,  so  tall  that 
the  tassels  would  be  above  his  head  when  he  rode 
through  the  field  on  horseback  ;  but  that  in  July  of  the 
present  year,  his  crop  was  but  four  feet  high. 

There  will,  therefore,  necessarily  be  much  apprehen- 
sion existing  among  the  experimenters  of  the  sorgho,  as  to 
its  maturity,  and  it  may  even  be  that,  in  case  the  frosts  set 
in  earlier  than  usual  in  the  fall,  a  large  proportion  of  the 
plants  throughout  the  United  States  will  not  ripen  their 
seed-heads ;  but  because  they  do  not,  it  is  no  index  of 
what  we  must  expect,  were  the  season  but  auspicious. 
The  experiment  has  been  tried  in  France  of  using 
excessive  irrigation  to  produce  an  increased  growth  of 
stalks;  and  as  in  that  case,  although  the  growth  was 
obtained,  yet  the  proportion  of  the  sugar  in  the  juice 
was  in  consequence  materially  reduced,  we  may  like- 
wise expect  that  the  rain  of  the  present  season  will  pro- 
duce, should  we  have  warm  and  favorable  weather  till 
the  close  of  the  seas  »D,  a  great  growth  of  stalks,  but  a 


DESCRIPTION    OF   THE   PLANT  41 

diminished  richness  in  the  juice.  When  the  panicle 
commences  to  put  Lrth  its  flowers,  the  portion  of  the 
stalk,  immediately  under  it,  contains  a  quantity  of  sugar, 
equal  to  that  which  may  be  found  later  in  the  lower 
portions  of  the  plant ;  but  in  ratio,  as  maturity  of  the 
seed  is  produced,  this  upper  part  of  the  stalk  loses  its 
sweet  principle,  which  seems  to  descend  by  its  specific 
gravity  toward  the  root,  slowly,  it  is  true,  but  surely, 
and  at  the  time  of  harvesting  the  cane,  there  is  a  marked 
difference  between  the  comparative  saccharine  richness 
of  the  upper  and  lower  portions.  In  noticing  this  fact, 
Dr.  Sicard  shows  the  analogy  between  it,  and  what 
occurs  in  the  case  of  grapes.  "  The  latter  in  fact  com- 
mence by  giving  verjuice.  In  proportion  as  the  ripen- 
ning  advances,  they  become  more  and  more  sweet ;  and 
if  you  only  know  enough  to  gather  them  at  the  proper 
epoch,  and  the  temperature  of  the  atmosphere  is  pro- 
pitious, you  will  obtain  wines  of  a  quality,  by  as  much 
more  superior  as  the  juices  of  the  grape  are  more 
elaborated,  that  is  to  say,  arrived  at  a  more  perfect 
maturity." 


PULLING  OUT  TEE  TUFTS,   ETC.-RIPENINGK 

It  has  been  observed  by  Mr.  Wray,  as  quoted  by  the 
French  authors,  that  it  is  the  practice  among  the  Zulu 
Kaffirs  to  pull  out  the  panicles  on  the  stalk,  at  the  time 
that  they  are  appearing,  for  the  purpose  of  concentrating 
the  juices  and  obtaining  more  sugar ;  but  upon  this  sub- 
ject, Dr.  Sicard  says,  that  in  taking  off  the  panicle  of  the 
seed,  when  it  commences  to  show  itself,  we  will  arrive 


42  THE   CHINESE   SUGAR   CANE. 

at  an  effect  contrary  to  what  is  desired.  He  says,  that 
he  had  some  canes  of  which  the  stalk  was  broken,  at 
different  periods  of  its  development,  and  that  he  had  re- 
marked, that  according  to  the  color  of  the  seed,  that  is 
to  say,  according  to  the  more  or  less  continued  progress 
of  the  process  of  ripening,  the  internodes  the  nearest  to 
the  upper  portion  of  the  plant,  were  more  or  less  sweet. 
Thus,  he  says,  the  colors  most  removed  from  that  of  the 
ripe  seed  coincided  with  the  greater  quantity  of  sugar 
in  the  internodes  nearest  the  panicle ;  but  the  more  the 
plants  approached  the  term  of  maturity,  the  more  did  the 
saccharine  matter  travel  downwards  in  the  stalk.  In 
ripening,  the  Chinese  sugar-cane  takes  on  a  yellowish 
tint,  striped  in  places  with  red.  Some  of  them  continue 
to  preserve  an  apple-green  color,  marked  likewise  with 
red.  These  colors  generally  indicate  the  term  of  matur- 
ity ;  if  the  red  passes  into  carmine  the  cane  is  too  ripe, 
and  cultivators  should  notice  this  thing,  in  connection 
with  the  color  of  the  seeds.  At  the  commencement  of 
our  experience  with  this  new  plant,  it  is  well  to  mention 
the  fact,  that  -it  is  subject  to  different  maladies,  some  of 
which  attack  the  root,  and  some  the  pith  of  the  stalk. 
Dr.  Sicard  has  made,  upon  this  point,  extensive  in- 
vestigations, and  at  page  65  of  his  book  says,  "  The 
roots,  especially  the  upper  ones,  those  which  we  have 
called  secondary,  take  on  sometimes  a  deep  violet  color. 
If  you  cut  these  roots  thus  degenerated,  they  present  in 
the  interior  the  appearance  of  a  purplish  red  color, 
which  continues  even  as  far  as  the  radicles.  The  plants 
which  have  these  roots,  languish,  take  on  a  chlorotic  tint, 
and  end  by  their  dying,  or  producing  insignificant 


DESCRIPTION   OF  THE   PLANT.  43 

panicles;  they  contain  scarcely  any  sugar.  If  we  ex- 
press the  juice  from  these  canes,  and  allow  it  to  stand 
for  a  while,  there  will  be  found  at  the  bottom  of  the 
vessel  a  considerable  portion  of  fecula,  with  a  reddish 
tint,  which  subsequently  passes  into  a  violet  tint  by  con- 
tact with  the  air.  There  is  developed,  sometimes,  on  the 
plant,  much  before  its  maturity,  reddish  points.  If  we 
cut  into  this  part  of  the  cane,  it  will  be  found  to  be  pass- 
ing from  a  red  into  a  violet;  having  no  more  sweet 
juice,  but  a  species  of  vinegar,  of  a  very  disagreeable 
flavor,  (which  is  due  to  the  ferments  which  are  developed 
from  the  juice  under  the  influence  of  the  air).  We  have 
found,  likewise,  the  larvas  of  insects  in  the  interior  of 
the  cane.  Unfortunately  they  were  lost  before  I  could 
experiment  upon  them.  We  are  in  possession  of  a  stalk 
which  had  received  a  bruise  at  the  middle  of  one  of  its 
internodes.  This  wound,  which  only  seemed  to  the 
naked  eye  a  simple  dot  or  point,  controlled  the  violet 
color  in  all  the  internodes  which  had  acquired  the  defects 
above  indicated ;  but  what  is  most  remarkable  is,  that 
the  principal  nodes  did  not  participate  in  any  way 
in  this  alteration.  This  same  coloring  was  observed 
upon  all  the.  canes  injured  by  hailstones." 


PROSTRATION  BY  WIND-STORMS. 

It  unfortunately  happened  to  us,  that  as  our  crop  of  the 
last  season  was  just  approaching  the  time  of  the  putting 
forth  of  the  panicles,  a  violent  storm  prostrated  the 
whole  field.  In  our  dilemma,  ignorant  of  what  was 
best  to  be  done,  we  tried  various  methods  of  raising 


4:4  THE   CHINESE   SUGAR  CANE. 

them.  "We  straightened  up  a  number  on  opposite  rows, 
inclined  them  towards  the  center,  and  bound  them 
together  by  wisps  of  straw,  or  by  strings,  thinking  that 
by  treating  the  whole  field  in  this  manner,  we  might 
save  a  considerable  portion  of  our  crop ;  but  we  soon 
found  that  the  knots  on  the  canes  were  so  tender  that 
a  very  large  number  of  them  broke  in  two  at  the  joints, 
and  were  thus  rendered  entirely  useless.  We  discon- 
tinued the  experiment,  after  having  satisfied  ourselves  of 
its  inefiicacy.  On  the  portions  of  the  field  which  we 
left  untouched,  the  plants  were  mingled  together  in 
much  confusion  upon  the  ground,  and  we  found  to  our 
surprise,  that  no  fermentation  occurred ;  nor  did  the  plants 
beneath  die  out  because  of  the  superincumbent  masses, 
but  like  corn  under  similar  circumstances,  the  stalks 
began  to  grow  with  a  curve  upward.  In  some  cases, 
the  upper  ones  partly  elevated  themselves.  The  ones 
beneath  struggled  to  get  to  the  light  and  air,  in  some 
cases  protruding  their  panicles  where  an  opening  occurred. 
But  Dr.  Sicard,  who  met  with  a  similar  accident  at  the 
time  when  they  had  not  thrown  out  their  seed-heads, 
says,  "  At  the  end  of  several  days  they  made  efforts  to 
raise  themselves.  The  canes  which  were  on  top  were 
nearly  successful ;  but  not  so  those  which  were  buried.  It 
seemed  as  if  conscious  that  they  could  not  overcome  the 
weight  which  rested  upon  them,  they  twisted  their  stalks 
upwards,  and  in  that  prostrated  condition  developed 
their  flowers  in  the  usual  way.  One  of  them  which  was 
completely  buried,  and  which  could  not  reach  the  light, 
had  thrown  out  from  each  one  of  its  nodes,  shoots  which 
formed  large  panicles  and  yielded  a  rich  harvest  of 


DESCRIPTION"   OF   THE   PLANT.  45 

seeds,  The  canes  have  suffered  nothing  from  this  un- 
propitious  position.  It  was  only  those  which  were  com- 
pletely flat  upon  the  ground  and  in  contact  with  the 
soil,  which  were  unfit  for  the  extraction  of  sugar.  They 
had  been  almost  completely  converted  into  feculent 
matter.  "We  should  observe  that  we  had  taken  the 
precaution  to  hill  these  sugar  canes,  which  were  thus 
thrown  upon  the  soil  by  storm.  It  is  to  be  remarked 
that  the  plants  which  were  sown  alone  by  themselves, 
which  were  not  hilled,  had  not  been  thrown  down  by 
the  wind,  which  corroborates  the  opinion  previously 
advanced  by  us  of  the  uselessness  of  hilling.  It  now 
seems  to  us  proved  that  in  letting  the  plant  take  care 
of  itself,  without  coming  to  its  aid  by  artificial  appliances, 
the  cultivation  would  be  easier,  and  the  harvest  more 
sure.  Too  much  care  given  to  certain  products  of  the 
soil  are  oftentimes  more  hurtful  than  useful."  Unlike 
Dr.  Sicard's  plants,  my  own  were  not  in  hills,  but  were 
sown  in  drills  at  two,  and  two  and  a  half  feet  apart. 
I  find  that  some  rows  of  canes  which  were  planted  at 
a  distance  of  about  a  foot  apart,  in  the  row,  in  a  more 
exposed  position  than  the  field  which  was  prostrated, 
not  only  were  not  thrown  down  by  the  wind,  but  ripened 
their  seed-heads;  and  from  our  own  experience  we 
learned  the  useful  lesson  that  the  Chinese  Sugar  Cane, 
like  our  common  corn,  should  not  be  planted  so  near 
together,  as,  when  they  acquire  their  development, 
to  partially  exclude  the  free  access  of  air  and  sunlight 
to  every  portion  of  the  stalk.  In  fact  the  planting  and 
cultivation  should,  in  all  their  details,  be  similar  to 
that  given  in  the  most  approved  practice  to  the  corn  crop. 


CHAPTEE  III. 

SOILS   REQUIEEB— CULTUKE— MANURING 

WHEN  we  say  that  the  Chinese  Sugar  Cane  can  grow 
upon  all  soils  on  which  a  fair  crop  of  Indian  corn  can  be 
raised,  we  have  almost  covered  the  entire  question,  and 
given  the  desired  information;  but  inasmuch  as  upon 
certain  soils  only  can  the  best  results,  so  far  as  the  pro- 
duction of  sugar  is  concerned,  be  obtained,  we  deem  it 
expedient  to  record  a  few  facts  which  have  been  gathered 
from  the  observations  of  cultivators  in  all  parts  of  the 
world.  The  experiments  which  have  been  made  upon  it 
in  Algeria,  France,  and  this  country,  have  proved  the 
fact  that  the  best  results-are  obtained  on  loose,  deep  soils; 
but  it  has  been  demonstrated  that  the  juices  of  plants 
grown  upon  soils  largely  composed  of  vegetable  detritus, 
is  more  abundant  in  fecula,  and  the  sugar  manifests  a 
somewhat  weaker  propensity  to  crystallize  than  upon  any 
others  ;  but  in  such  cases,  as  it  contains  a  large  quantity 
of  fecula,  it  can  be  readily  converted  into  alcohol.  There 
seems  to  be  a  peculiar  difference  bet  ween  the  juices  of  the 
imphee  and  of  the  Chinese  Sugar  Cane,  which  is  a  fair 
representation  of  the  difference  between  the  juices  of 
the  Chinese  Sugar  Cane  itself  when  produced  under  two 
different  conditions  of  soil ;  and  thus,  for  instance,  in  the 
Chinese  Sugar  Cane  there  is  a  larger  proportion  of  fecula 
than  in  the  imphee,  and  it  is  consequently  necessary  for 
the  planter  to  take  more  care  in  his  attempts  to  produce 
[46] 


SOILS   BEQUIRED— CULTURE — MANURING.  47 

the  sugar.  "  The  juice  of  the  Imphee,"  says  Mr.  Wray, 
"is  naturally  more  limpid,  more  free  from  extractive 
matter,  and  proportionably  easier  to  defecate."  In  cases 
where  the  Chinese  Sugar  Cane  has  been  grown  on 
swampy  land,  very  large  plants  have  been  produced ; 
but  the  juice  contains  sometimes  several  per  cent,  less  of 
crystallizable  sugar,  than  when  grown  upon  dry,  warm 
uplands.  The  canes  grown  upon  warm,  dry  soils,  situ- 
ated so  that  they  can  be  irrigated  at  pleasure  from  a 
neighboring  brook,  according  as  the  summer  heat  be- 
comes more  or  less  severe,  will  give  the  desired  develop- 
ment of  stalk,  and  they  will  also  have  much  purer  juices ; 
and  hence,  as  we  before  observed,  the  effects  of  the  con- 
stant rains  of  this  season  will  doubtless  be  to  produce  the 
results  which  have  been  mentioned  by  Professor  Heuzd 
of  Grignon,  as  resulting  from  the  practice  of  excessive 
irrigation. 

M.  Paul  Madinier  says,  in  his  little  pamphlet,  that  for 
it  are  especially  suitable  light,  sandy  soils,  and  calcareous 
soils ;  but  particularly  those  formed  from  alluvial  depos- 
its. That  in  nearly  every  case,  especially  in  Algeria  and 
the  southern  part  of  France,  very  excellent  results  will 
be  attained  by  the  employment  of  irrigation  during  the 
early  stages  of  its  growth,  and  when  it  is  most  rapidly 
developing  itself;  but  that  if  employed  at  a  later  date, 
when  it  is  approaching  maturity,  it  proves  deleterious,  by 
impeding  the  elaboration  of  the  saccharine  principle,  and 
rendering  the  canes  too  watery.  •  M.  Hardy,  the  intelli- 
gent director  of  the  Government  Nursery  in  Algeria, 
says  that  the  sorgho  flourishes  extremely  well  on  soils  con- 
taining carbonate  of  lime,  and  he  advises  frequent  liming 


48  THE   CHINESE  SUGAR  CANE. 

of  such  soils  as  are  deficient  in  it.  This  recommendation 
finds  its  explanation  in  the  astonishing  success  of  the 
sorgho  on  the  chalky  soils  of  Champagne,  where,  other- 
wise, they  obtained  very  mediocre  results ;  but,  says  M. 
Madinier,  if  calcareous  applications  seem  desirable,  it  is 
by  no  means  the  same  of  such  other  saline  manures  as 
have  been  found  by  experience  to  be  unfavorable  for  the 
sugar  cane  and  the  sugar  beet. 

Lacoste  urges  upon  his  readers  to  avoid  attempting  the 
sorgho  culture  on  soils  where  the  soluble,  inorganic  mat- 
ters are  very  abundant,  because,  they  would  thus  be  ex- 
posed to  the  undesirable  perplexity  of  producing  juice  in 
their  plants  of  a  saline  character,  and  completely  unsuit- 
able to  the  extraction  of  sugar. 

Count  Beauregard  says  that  the  sorgho  will  nourish 
well  on  almost  all  soils,  if  they  be  underdrained  and  irri- 
gated ;  but  his  experience  shows  him  what  would  be  sup- 
posed by  any  sensible  man,  that  the  best  results  are  ob- 
tained on  soils  of  the  best  quality  that  are  best  cultivated. 

We  may  mention  in  respect  to  the  soils,  that  one  of 
the  French  writers  speaks  of  having  procured  fine  crops 
of  sorgho  from  a  soil  on  which  he  thinks  he  would  not 
have  have  got  a  fair  crop  of  any  other  forage  plant ; 
and  the  acre  of  plants  which  I  raised  myself  last  year, 
was  on  a  coarse,  gravelly  loam,  resting  on  a  pure  gravelly 
subsoil,  so  hard  that  it  was  a  matter  of  difficulty  to  plow 
it,  and  subsoiling  was  almost  impossible.  From  the  ex- 
perience of  all  the  cultivators  with  whose  writings  I  have 
met,  I  should  advise  the  choice  of  land  of  medium  qual- 
ity, and  between  a  black  loam  and  a  pure  gravel,  and  of 
a  moderate  richness. 


SOILS   REQUIRED — CULTURE — MANURING.  49 

SHOULD  HILLING  BE  PRACTICED? 

There  are  in  our  own  country,  advanced  by  various 
cultivators,  conflicting  opinions  relative  to  the  practice  of 
hilling  corn.  Some  maintain  its  superior  efficacy  in 
causing  the  appearance  of  extra  roots,  which  serve  to  pro- 
tect the  plants  from  prostration  by  storms,  and  others  as 
strenuously  urging  that  the  very  effort  thus  forced  upon 
the  plant  is  an  unnatural  one,  and  is  met  by  the  penalty 
of  diminishing  its  strength.  This  same  adversity  of 
opinion  has  been  manifested  in  respect  to  the  sorgho  cul- 
ture. Mr.  Hardy,  of  Algiers,  hills  his  plants  three  feet 
apart,  and  irrigates  them  by  making  alongside  each  row  a 
slight  surface  furrow  with  a  corn  plow,  and  turning  in  it 
a  gentle  streamlet  of  water  from  his  brook  or  reservoir  ; 
but  Dr.  Sicard  maintains  that  hilling  is  very  unadvisable, 
because  the  Chinese  Sugar  Cane  has  need  of  roots  com- 
mencing on  the  stalk  above  the  surface  of  the  ground ; 
that,  by  their  free  contact  with  the  atmosphere,  there 
may  be  absorbed  carbonic  acid  and  other  nutritive  gases, 
and  the  just  starting  sap  being  thus  early  acted  upon  by 
gases  and  sunbeam,  is  made  more  prone  to  crystallize  at 
a  later  period  of  its  elaboration.  His  assumptions,  he 
maintains,  were  fully  borne  out  by  the  comparative  ex- 
periments made  on  the  hilled  and  flat  cultivated  plants 
on  his  field.  Without  assuming  the  right  or  ability  to 
settle  the  vexed  question  as  to  the  chemical  principles 
involved,  I  would  merely  give  my  preference  to  the  sys- 
tem of  cultivating  flat  and  in  drills  on  fair  soils,  for  with 
the  improved  implements  which  are  so  easily  obtainable 
at  this  time,  and  without  which  no  farmer  can  really 
8 


50  THE   CHINESE   SUGAR  CANE. 

afford  to  cultivate  his  crops,  the  whole  ground  can  be 
effectually  stirred  up  to  the  very  foot  of  each  plant,  and 
the  double  labor  of  turning  at  the  end  of  rows  crossing 
each  other  be  avoided ;  the  plants  being  spaced  in  the 
rows  at  a  suitable  distance  apart,  are  not  overcrowded  as 
they  are  in  hills,  and  they  thus  have  greater  tendency  to 
ripen  their  seed-heads.  I  should  recommend  planting  at 
three  and  a  half  feet  apart,  the  plants  in  the  row  thinned 
out  to  twelve  inches  apart. 


DEEP  CULTURE-SUBSOIL  PLOWING. 

The  land  should,  of  course,  be  well  worked  and  deeply 
stirred,  and  the  use  of  the  subsoil  plow  has  on  our 
farm  been  attended  with  the  happiest  results.  By  its 
disturbing  influence  upon  the  subjacent  particles  of  the 
soil,  not  only  are  spaces  made  through  which  in  infinite 
numbers  are  insinuated  the  delicate  radicles  of  the  grow- 
ing plant,  but  at  the  same  time  sunlight,  and  the  trick- 
ling dew  drops,  and  the  gases  of  the  atmosphere,  descend 
through  the  interstices  and  conspire  to  assist  the  develop- 
ments of  vegetable  life.  To  a  plant  which  is  so  tardy  in 
acquiring  a  rapidity  in  growth  as  the  sorgho,  it  is  espe- 
cially desirable  to  give  assistance  in  its  early  stages. 
The  swelling  of  the  parent  seed,  the  putting  forth  of  the 
first  radicle,  and  the  progressive  accretions  of  matter, 
are  all  expedited  by  a  sufficient  contact  with  air,  heat, 
light,  and  moisture.  When  the  soil  remains  quite  com- 
pact, by  reason  of  much  moisture  present,  the  air,  and 
consequently  warmth,  is  to  a  great  extent  excluded,  and 
the  seed  lying  in  the  soil  is  not  brought  in  contact  with 


SOILS  REQUIRED — CULTURE— MANURING.  51 

the  degree  of  warmth,  which  is  necessary  to  aid  the  pro- 
cess of  germination,  and  thus,  in  many  cases,  will  rot  in 
the  ground.  The  subsoil  plow,  running  as  it  does 
deep  beneath  the  surface,  disturbs  the  relations  of  the 
particles  from  the  lowest  portion  of  its  path  of  travel  up 
to  the  topmost  layers,  and  if  its  aid  be  called  in  when 
the  seed  is  first  germinating,  or  when  the  tiny  shoot  is 
but  first  above  ground,  the  air,  the  dew,  and  the  sun- 
light are  enabled  to  act  directly  upon  its  roots,  and  they 
acquire  great  vigor  and  strength. 

It  is  our  practice  at  the  Farm  School  to  use  a  small 
subsoil  plow,  with  one  horse*  to  mark  out  our  rows  of . 
sorgho  and  corn  in  place  of  the  small  plow,  marker,  or 
chain  commonly  employed.  By  so  doing,  we  thoroughly 
loosen  the  soil  directly  under  our  row  of  plants,  and  pre- 
pare for  the  deposit  of  the  seed  in  a  most  thorough  and 
excellent  manner.  If  the  subsoil  plow  be  subsequently 
run  between  the  rows  once  or  twice  during  the  season,  the 
whole  ground  will  have  been  disturbed. 


SOAKING  SEED. 

I  think  very  favorably  of  the  practice  of  soaking  the 
seed  of  the  sorgho  for  twenty -four  hours  before  planting. 
It  has  been  found  by  direct  experiment  that  seeds  deprived 
of  the  hulls  will  germinate  much  sooner  than  those  planted 
at  the  same  time  but  not  so  treated.  Dr.  Sicard,  to  try 
the  experiment,  planted  two  lots  of  seed,  one  with,  the 
other  without  the  hulls,  and  the  latter  were  out  of  the 

*  This  admirable  instrument  is  manufactured  by  Nourse,  Mason, 
&  Co.,  of  Boston,  from  plans  furnished  by  Professor  J.  J.  Mapes. 


52  THE  CHINESE  SUGAR  CANE. 

ground  in  ten  days,  five  days  before  the  other.  This 
method  of  procedure  will  be  specially  commendable  in 
those  latitudes  where  the  warmth  of  summer  is  of  brief 
duration,  and  every  day  that  can  be  saved  in  the  earlier 
stages  of  growth  is  highly  valuable.  In  warm  soils, 
which  are  likewise  moist,  the  greatest  rapidity  of  germi- 
nation will  be  observed,  and  it  behoves  us  to  in  some 
manner  imitate  these  desirable  conditions  by  soaking  the 
seed  for  twenty -four  hours  in  tepid  water,  to  which  is 
added  a  small  quantity  of  saltpeter,  say  about  one  ounce 
to  six  gallons  of  water.  Previous  to  sowing,  it  should  be 
rolled  in  plaster. 

COVERING  LIGHTLY. 

It  is  a  well  known  fact  that  it  is  highly  unadvisable  to 
cover  the  seeds  of  certain  of  our  vegetables,  the  carrot 
for  instance,  too  deeply,  lest  they  rot.  The  sorgho  is  not 
an  exception  to  the  rule,  and  the  planter  should  beware 
lestrhis  hands  carelessly  cover  the  seed  with  more  than 
a  light  covering  of  earth  ;  for  if  continued  moist  weather 
follows  the  planting,  the  seed  will  certainly  rot  in  the 
ground. 

MANURES. 

In  considering  the  question  as  to  which  manure  is 
most  suitable  for  the  sorgho,  we  must  recall  the  fact  pre- 
viously noticed  in  this  work,  that  if  the  canes  be  grown 
on  soils  in  which  either  naturally  or  by  artificial  appli- 
cation there  are  present  excessive  quantities  of  soluble 
saline  matter,  so  much  will  be  absorbed  by  the  plant  as 


SOILS  REQUIRED — C ULTURE — MANURING. 


53 


to  seriously  impair  the  crystallizability  of  the  sap. 
Horse  manure  being  violent  in  its  action,  and  yielding  a 
large  proportion  of  ammonia,  is  more  unsuitable  than 
that  of  horned  cattle,  but  the  latter,  even,  is  inferior 
to  the  plowing  in  of  clover,  and  other  green  crops. 
From  the  analysis  given  by  M.  Avequin,  of  New 
Orleans,  which  will  be  found  in  the  Appendix,  it  will  be 
seen  that  the  most  important  ingredients  in  the  ash  of 
the  sorgho  are  the  phosphates  of  lime  and  magnesia, 
acetate,  muriate,  and  sulphate  of  potash,  together  with 
hydrated  silica  and  oxides  of  iron  and  manganese. 
Lacoste  gives  in  his  pamphlet  the  following  analysis  by 
M.  Hetet,  from  the  "Bevue  Colouiale,"  1856,  page  164. 


Water, 

Salts, 
Sugar, 

Woody  fibre, 
Albumen, 
Fatty  matter, 
Cerosie, 


70-000 
0-537 


29-463 


100-000 


The  0-537  contains 
Silica,  0-062 

Chlorine, 
Sulph.  Acid, 
j^Phosph.    " 
Carbonic  "     >0'47o 
Potash, 
Lime, 
Magnesia, 


>  0-537 


The  water  given  in  the  Sorgho  analysis,  he  thinks  some- 
what less  than  it  should  be,  say  two  per  cent. 

The  bagasse,  or  crushed  canes  that  have  passed 
through  the  mill,  should  be  returned  to  the  field  and 
plowed  under,  for  like  those  of  ordinary  sugar  cane  they 
will  prove  highly  advantageous.  Sicard  mentions  the 
fact  that  one  M.  Lautier  sowed  some  Chinese  Suo^ar 


54  THE   CHINESE   SUGAR   CANE. 

Cane  in  a  field  of  potatoes,  and  with  good  results  so  far 
as  obtaining  a  crop  of  large  canes  was  concerned.  Each 
potato  had  received,  when  planted,  a  handful  of  pigeon's 
dung,  and  the  sugar  canes  were  planted  when  the  po- 
tatoes had  attained  the  size  of  a  pigeon's  egg.  The 
canes  given  to  the  Doctor  were  of  a  fine  size  and  ap- 
pearance, but  he  found  their  juices  quite  unfit  for  sugar 
making,  because  of  the  presence  of  foreign  matters 
therein  contained ;  thus  clearly  demonstrating  the  in- 
jurious effects  of  an  application  of  ammoniacal  manure. 
We  have  reason  to  regret  that  in  sending  the  seed  from 
Shanghae,  the  Count  de  Montigny  was  not  at  the  same 
time  able  to  advise  us  as  to  the  details  of  cultivation 
and  manuring  practiced  by  the  Chinese.  Probably  no 
country  in  the  world  can  show  such  scientifically  pur- 
sued agriculture  as  China,  and  it  is  a  most  untoward 
circumstance  that  during  the  present  year  anything 
should  have  occurred  in  our  relations  with  that  country 
to  retard  a  closer  intimacy  with  her  people.  It  would 
confer  great  riches  upon  our  farmers  if  some  explorers 
could  but  report  in  detail  upon  the  systems  of 'husbandry 
employed  in  China,  for  they  would  be  shown  so  su- 
perior to  our  own  practices  that  they  should  necessarily 
be  imitated  to  a  considerable  extent. 


CULTIYATIOX. 

As  soon  as  the  rows  can  be  seen — and  this  would 
be  hastened  by  dropping  a  radish  seed  in  each  hill  of 
sorgho — the  cultivator,  or  horse-shoe,  should  be  run 
through  the  piece,  to  destroy  any  weeds  while  they  are 


SOILS  REQUIRED — CULTURE — MANURING.  55 

small  and  tender,  As  soon  after  this  as  it  is  possible 
to  spare  time,  we  run  the  one  horse  subsoil  plow 
twice  between  the  rows,  going  up  alongside  one  row, 
and  down  by  the  other.  The  subsequent  cultivation 
is  only  a  repetition  of  this  practice. 


HYBRIDIZATION. 

It  must  be  remembered,  that  the  Chinese  Sugar  Cane  is 
a  congener  to  broom  corn,  Guinea  or  chocolate  corn, 
Doura  and  Egyptian  millet,  and  must  not  be  planted 
anywhere  near  any  one  of  these,  for  in  such  case  it 
would  most  undoubtedly  hybridize  with  them  and  lose 
a  great  part  of  its  sugar-bearing  qualities.  It  is  thought 
by  many  extremely  probable  that  the  above  varieties 
are  only  hybridizations  of  the  same  original  plant. 


CURING-  FODDER. 

Considerable  care  should  be  taken  in  curing  the  fall 
crop  for  stacking.  Mr.  D.  Jay  Browne  recommends  cut- 
ting the  stalks  when  the  thermometer  stands  at  40  to  50 
degrees  Fahr.,  for  it  is  then  less  likely  to  sour.  The 
method  of  cutting  practiced  by  Dr.  Eobert  Battey,  of 
Georgia,  is  as  follows :  "  The  fodder  (leaves)  should  be 
stripped,  as  is  corn,  by  the  first  set  of  hands;  another  set 
cut  off  one  and  a  half  to  two  feet  of  the  top  of  the  stalk 
with  the  seed,  while  others  cut  the  cane  at  the  ground 
and  throw  it  into  piles,  from  whence  it  is  hauled  to  the 
press."  It  will  scarcely  be  necessary,  I  trust,  to  urge 
the  necessit}'-  of  having  got  the  mill  and  boilers  in  readi- 


56  THE   CHINESE   SUGAR   CANE. 

ness  to  crush  and  boil,  before  commencing  the  harvest  of 
the  crop.  The  canes  should  be  allowed  to  lie  but  a 
short  time  before  being  worked  up,  and  hence  it  will  be 
advisable  to  commence  by  cutting  and  crushing  the  canes 
which  ripen  before  the  major  part  of  the  crop,  and  each 
day  cutting  up  only  as  much  as  can  be  disposed  of  con- 
veniently. 

SAYING  SEED. 

The  seed  heads,  with  the  two  feet  of  stalk  attached, 
should  be  made  into  small  bundles,  and  laid  up  or  hung 
up  in  the  loft  to  dry.  At  a  convenient  season,  the  seed 
should  be  stripped  off  with  a  broom-corn  machine,  a 
comb,  or  by  some  other  good  method.*  Mr.  Wray  has 
removed  his  seed  by  putting  the  heads  into  a  bag,  and 
threshing  it  with  flails.  There  is  a  demand  now  created 
for  a  sorgho  seed  threshing  machine,  and  it  will  not  be 
long  before  it  is  supplied.  The  seed  may  be  cleaned  by 
rubbing  briskly  between  the  hands,  and  winnowing  in  a 
strong  wind.  The  leaves  stripped  from  the  canes  should 
be  cured  and  stored  for  fodder. 

*  A  suggestion  for  a  cylinder-hatchel,  for  stripping  the  seed,  will  be 
found  in  the  Appendix,  in  letter  of  Hedges,  Free  &  Co. 


CHAPTEE    IV. 

VALUE  AS  A  F<  RAGE  CROP— TESTIMONY  OF  CULTIVATOES. 

THE  plan  I  purpose  to  pursue  in  discussing  the  claims 
of  the  sorgho  to  the  attention  of  our  farmers,  is  entirely 
different  from  those  of  other  investigators  who  have  pre- 
ceded me;  for  I  shall  at  first  consider  its  value  as  a 
forage  crop  and  a  cereal,  and  endeavor  to  show  that,  even 
if  we  could  not  make  from  it  sugar,  syrup,  alcohol,  or  any 
other  of  its  products,  we  still  have  reason  for  congratu- 
lating ourselves  upon  its  introduction.  If  this  be  success- 
fully accomplished,  it  is  plain  that,  whatever  may  be  the 
fluctuations  in  its  other  yields  of  profit,  it  will  have  a 
regular  commercial  value  as  a  means  of  fattening  stock, 
and  in  this  single  department  be  a  source  of  large  wealth 
to  the  nation.  It  may  possibly  be  that  some  of  my  more 
speculative  readers  may  prefer  to  omit  the  sober  consid- 
erations of  this  chapter,  and  at  once  pass  over  to  the 
more  alluring  phases  of  the  following  one ;  but  I  have 
too  vivid  a  recollection  of  former  vegetable  wonders  not 
to  seek  to  prove  to  our  farmers  that,  in  cultivating  the 
Chinese  Sugar  Cane,  they  will  be  more  fortunate  than 
they  were  with  the  Morus  mutticautis,  which,  after  the 
subsidence  of  the  silk  fever,  was  found  to  be  unfit  for 
anything,  except  an  application  of  the  pick  ax  and  plow. 
Although  I  think  the  sorgho  is  destined  to  rank  alongside 
the  sugar  cane,  Indian  corn,  cotton,  and  hemp,  in  the  list 
of  our  industrial  plants,  I  firmly  believe  that  it  will  be  con- 


58  THE   CHINESE   SUGAR  CANE. 

demned  and  abused  by  hundreds  who  are  cultivating  it 
this  year.  Not  because  of  any  fault  in  the  plant,  but  be- 
cause the  most  extravagant  notions  of  turning  a  small 
garden  patch  into  a  rich  sugar  plantation  have  been  en- 
tertained, and  the  hope  has  been  unwisely  put  forth  by 
some,  that,  without  any  of  the  proper  apparatus,  even 
without  the  necessary  conditions  of  growth,  large  quan- 
tities of  crystallized  sugar  could  easily  be  obtained.  As 
I  know  by  personal  communication,  in  many  instances 
these  dreams  of  inordinate  wealth  have  been  cherished 
by  persons  of  considerable  intelligence,  and  I  sincerely 
trust  that  should  these  lines  fall  under  the  notice  of  any 
such,  they  will  not  intemperately  throw  aside  a  really 
wonderful  plant  after  a  single  year's  imperfect  trial,  but 
with  me  be  content  to  assume  more  conservative  grounds. 


SOWING  FOE  PODDER. 

In  cultivating  the  sorgho  for  its  forage,  it  should  be 
sown  in  drills  two  feet  apart,  letting  fall  about  fifteen  to 
twenty  seeds  to  the  foot.  I  think  this  method  much  pre- 
ferable to  sowing  broadcast,  for  whilst  I  believe  the 
aggregate  weight  of  fodder  would  be  more  considerable, 
it  gives  a  marked  superiority  in  allowing  a  "root  cleaner" 
to  be  run  between  the  drills,  and  the  growth  of  enormous 
crops  of  weeds,  which  might  spring  up  in  broadcast 
sorgho,  would  be  entirely  prevented.  In  addition  to  this, 
the  field  presents  a  more  regular  and  orderly  appearance, 
the  crop  is  easier  to  cut,  not  so  liable  to  lodge,  and  in 
cutting  off  a  first  crop,  the  sunlight  and  air  is  more  freely 
admitted  to  the  roots  and  stubble,  and  the  second  crop  of 
rattoons,  or  new  shoots,  is  more  likely  to  be  a  full  one. 


VALUE  AS  A  FORAGE  CEOP.  59 

EATTOONING. 

In  speaking  of  rattooning,  we  have  touched  upon  a 
property  of  the  sorgho,  which  materially  distinguishes 
it  from  corn  fodder,  and  shows  its  superiority.  The 
life-principle  of  the  sorgho  is  so  active,  that  if  the  plants 
be  cut  down  when  they  are  either  small  or  large,  and 
the  stubble  is  suffered  to  remain  undisturbed,  there  will 
immediately  spriug  up  from  the  old  stocks  a  new  set  of 
canes,  or  rattoons,  and  if  the  season  be  long  enough,  the 
new  plants  will,  like  their  predecessors,  run  through  all 
the  phases  of  growth,  and  bear  and  ripen  seed. 

CUTTING  FODDER. 

Hence,  when  cultivated  for  fodder,  the  crop  should  be 
mowed  down  as  soon  as  it  is  large  enough  to  feed  to 
stock ;  and  according  to  the  length  of  the  season,  two, 
three,  four,  and  even  five  crops  can  be  obtained.  Mr.  D. 
Jay  Browne  speaks  of  having  known  of  five  cuttings  for 
fodder,  in  Florida,  last  year;  the  last  crop  perfecting  its  seed. 

M.  Ch.  d'lvernois  says,  in  a  letter  addressed  to  the 
President  of  the  Imperial  Zoological  Acclimation  Society, 
that  the  result  of 'his  extended  experiments  satisfies  him 
that  the  sorgho  is  a  plant  of  immense  value.  He  has 
taken  at  Hyeres,  during  the  last  season,  five  abundant 
cuttings  on  a  soil  light  and  fertile,  but  not  capable  of 
being  irrigated,  and  upon  which  he  claims  that  scarce 
any  other  forage  crop  would  have  given  a  result  at 
nil  analogous.  The  fodder  was  greedily  eaten  by  all  his 
cattle.  He  thinks  that  the  sorgho  will  be  an  acquisition 
of  surprising  value  as  a  fodder  crop  for  the  district  of 


60  THE   CHINESE  SUGAR   CANE. 

Provence,  where  so  very  few  fodder  plants  can  withstand 
the  four  and  a  half  months  of  absolute  drought.  He 
believes  that,  as  to  the  crop  of  seed,  the  more  northern 
districts  of  France  cannot  hope  to  compete  with  the 
southern,  but  that  it  would  be  profitable  if  cut  for  fodder 
before  the  ripening  of  the  grain,  as  a  cheap  and  abundant 
supply  of  seed  could  always  be  obtained  from  more 
southern  latitudes. 


TESTIMONY  OF  D.  JAY  BROWNE.  ESQ. 

Mr.  Browne,  at  the  last  meeting,  at  Washington,  of 
the  United  States  Agricultural  Society,  being  called 
upon  by  the  Chair,  gave  a  most  interesting  history  of 
his  investigations  and  experience  with  the  plant.  He 
mentioned  that  in  Kentucky,  he  knew  of  nine  tons  of 
fodder  being  raised  on  an  acre,  the  weight  taken  after 
three  months  drying.  As  a  fodder  crop,  he  thought  its 
geographical  range  would  correspond  to  Indian  corn,  as  it 
had  been  grown  as  far  north  as  St.  Paul,  Minnesota,  and 
fully  ripened  its  seeds  in  Massachusetts  and  Illinois.  He 
cited  instances  of  cows  which  had  been  fed  upon  this 
cane  exclusively,  giving  a  diminished  quantity  of  milk, 
but  of  increased  richness  of  quality.  He  had  seen  two 
stock  cows,  not  giving  milk,  which  had  subsisted  en- 
tirely upon  it  for  six  weeks,  and  were  in  good  condition 
for  the  butcher.  Animals  ,  fed  upon  it  in  the  green 
state  throve  remarkably  well,  affording  excellent  milk, 
without  exhibiting  symptoms  of  "hoveu,"  or  flatulency, 
which  are  sometimes  produced  by  feeding  upon  succu- 
lent clover  or  corn. 


VALUE   AS  A   FOEAGE   CROP.  61 

TESTIMONY  OP  ASA  WHITNEY. 

Mr.  Whitney,  "the  Eailroad  Napoleon,"  whose  dairy 
farm  is  near  the  city  of  Washington,  found  that  if  the 
morning's  milk  of  cows  fed  upon  the  sorgho  were  put  in 
a  bottle  or  laid  on  the  ice  to  keep  it  cool,  by  night  it 
would  have  become  so  thickened  with  cream  as  to  be 
removed  from  the  bottle  with  some  difficulty.  A  gentle- 
man in  Massachusetts  informed  me  that  he  had  experi- 
mented with  sorgho  in  feeding  a  number  of  cows,  and 
that  it  not  only  augmented  the  richness  of  the  milk,  but 
the  quantity  likewise. 

TESTIMONY  OF  AUTHOR. 

We  have  on  our  farm  a  pair  of  large  Conestoga  horses, 
which  are  kept  constantly  at  hard  work  throughout  the 
season.  Last  year  we  fed  them  for  about  six  weeks  on 
sorgho  stalks,  with  nothing  else  except  a  little  timothy 
hay ;  and  we  found  that,  although  they  were  continually 
plowing,  hauling  stones  and  lumber,  and  performing  such 
laborious  duty,  yet  at  the  end  of  the  time  they  were  as 
sleek  and  fat  as  could  be  desired. 


TESTIMONY  OE  MR.  GRATZ,  OF  KENTUCKY. 

Benjamin  Grratz,  Esq.,  of  Lexington,  Kentucky,  Presi- 
dent of  the  County  Agricultural  Society,  informs  me  in 
a  recent  letter,  that  his  son,  a  large  planter,  tried  some 
experiments  in  feeding  his  mules  on  sorgho,  and  that 
"  they  consumed  it  with  great  avidity,  leaving  no  residue. 
He  also  gave  a  portion  to  his  1'ogs,  with  the  same  result. 


62  THE   CHINESE   SUGAR   CANE. 

He  is  under  the  impression  that  it  will  prove  very  valu- 
able for  stock  generally." 

Mr.  J.  F.  C.  Hyde,  of  Newton  Centre,  Massachusetts, 
says  at  page  32  of  his  book,  "  I  used  the  seed  cane  stalks 
and  leaves  for  fodder ;  cut  up  the  stalks  and  fed  to  horses, 
cows,  and  swine,  and  they  would  eat  it  with  the  greatest 
avidity,  even  like  shelled  cor  •." 

Doctor  Bowman,  of  Illinois,  has  fed  the  stalks  to  his 
horses,  and  writes  me  in  the  most  enthusiastic  manner  of 
its  value  for  forage. 


MR.  WRAY'S  REMARKS  AT  THE  PARSERS'  CLUB. 

At  a  recent  meeting  of  the  Farmers'  Club  of  the  Ameri- 
can Institute,  Mr.  Wray  gave  some  account  of  his  discov- 
ery of  the  imphee,  and,  among  other  things  of  his  expe- 
rience, mentioned  the  fact  that  it  had  been  his  practice  to 
feed  the  green  plants  to  his  animals.  He  cuts  them  into 
pieces  and  sprinkles  upon  each  mess  a  handful  of  salt. 
Under  this  treatment  he  finds  all  descriptions  of  stock  to 
keep  in  good  working  condition,  and  increase  in  fat. 
The  Kaffirs  told  him  not  to  feed  to  his  animals  the  bag- 
asse ;  and,  disregarding  their  advice,  he  lost  several  head 
of  cattle,  from  the  fact,  as  he  learned  by  opening  their 
bodies  after  death,  that  the  bagasse  when  taken  into  the 
stomach  formed  itself  into  large  balls,  from  the  succes- 
sive accumulations  of  which  death  had  ultimately  been 
caused.  This  undesirable  result  is  not  attained  when  the 
planter  takes  the  precaution  of  adding  to  the  bagasse  the 
scum  removed  from  the  boilers. 


VALUE   AS   A   FORAGE   CROP.  63 

COUNT  BEAUREGARD'S  EXPERIENCE. 

The  illustrious  President  of  the  Agricultural  Assembly 
of  Toulon,  Count  Beauregard,  mentions  the  fact  that  he 
had  "  sustained  for  a  month  and  a  half  sixty  head  of 
stock  with  the  produce  of  a  hectare  (about  two  acres), 
which  had  yielded  sugar  sorgho  the  previous  year,  and 
which,  by  a  circumstance  independent  of  my  wish,  had 
not  been  resown  this  year,  and  had  received  but  one  light 
plowing,  and  no  manure.  This  hectare  was  so  well  pro- 
vided with  vigorous  plants  springing  from  the  seeds 
which  had  been  spilled  at  the  harvest,  that  I  did  not  feel 
willing  to  turn  them  under,  and  thus  we  were  enabled 
throughout  the  entire  month  July  and  half  of  August,  to 
give  to  our  animals  an  excellent  nourishment,  and  one  on 
which  they  throve  marvelously  well."  And,  further- 
more, he  says,  "  The  only  thing  which  my  very  consider- 
able experience  of  the  past  three  years  constrains  me  to 
add  is,  that  this  plant,  contrary  to  what  might  be  feared, 
robs  and  deteriorates  the  soil  to  a  much  less  extent  than 
many  others  with  which  I  am  acquainted;  for  I  have 
harvested  three  crops  in  three  consecutive  years  from  the 
same  field,  with  but  a  slight  manuring  in  each  case,  and 
the  yields  have  been  more  and  more  excellent." 

TESTIMONY  OP  G.  DE  LACOSTE. 

Lacoste  .says,  p.  26  of  his  book,  that  if  fed  green  to 
cows,  the  sorgho  will  cause  an  increased  flow  of  milk, 
and  that  every  portion  of  the  saccharine  stalk  is  eaten 
with  avidity  by  cattle,  and  that  it  seems  specially  adapted 
to  nourishing  them. 


64  THE   CHINESE   SUGAR   CANE. 

GOVERNOR  GARDNER,  OF  MASSACHUSETTS. 

Hon.  H.  J.  Gardner,  Governor  of  Massachusetts,  in  a 
letter  to  Mr.  J.  F.  C.  Hyde,  enumerates  the  following 
facts : 

"  As  a  green  fodder  it  produces  more  food  for  cattle 
on  the  same  space,  and  at  the  same  cost  as  corn.  Cattle 
prefer  it  to  corn  fodder ;  for  I  repeatedly  gave  it  mixed 
with  corn  stalks  to  cows,  and  it  was  amusing  to  see  them 
carefully  select  the  sugar  canes  from  the  other.  It  is 
more  juicy  and  nutritious  for  milch  cows  than  any  other 
fodder,  for  it  is  well  known  that  sugar  contains  more 
nourishment  than  almost  any  other  vegetable  production 
in  daily  use." 

EXPERIENCE  OF  C.  I.  FLINT,  OF  MASSACHUSETTS. 

Chas.  L.  Flint,  Esq.,  Secretary  of  the  Massachusetts 
State  Board  of  Agriculture,  in  his  letter  to  Mr.  Hyde, 
says  that  he  knows  instances  where  cattle  picked  it  out, 
stalk  by  stalk,  from  bundles  of  corn  stalks ;  and  further, 
"  there  seems  every  reason  to  believe  that,  as  a  forage 
plant,  it  will  very  rapidly  come  into  general  favor,  and 
help  us  essentially  through  our  summer  drouths." 

CURING. 

Any  one  of  my  readers  who  has  grown  our  common 
corn  for  fodder,  will  understand  that  considerable  care 
must  be  taken  in  curing  the  green  succulent  stalks  of  the 
sorgho.  It  should  be  cut  in  the  morning,  when  the  dew 
is  off  the  plants,  and  suffered  to  lie  on  the  ground  and 


VALUE   AS  A  FOKAGL   CEOP.  65 

become  well  dried  before  it  is  bound  up.  The  bundles 
should  be  small,  and  before  putting  them  in  stack,  or  in 
the  barns,  should  be  set  up  in  groups  in  the  field  to  cause 
a  further  quantity  of  water  to  be  evaporated.  The  stack 
should,  of  course,  be  built  on  rails  or  other  convenient 
poles,  to  allow  of  a  circulation  of  air  beneath,  and  to 
carry  out  this  requisition  to  a  greater  extent,  it  is  well  to 
build  the  stack  around  rails  set  up  on  end,  and  leaning 
inwards  towards  the  center ;  by  which  plan,  of  course, 
the  interior  of  the  stack  is  in  direct  contact  with  the 
atmosphere,  and  thus  heating  will  not  so  soon  occur. 
The  extra  trouble  of  curing  is  repaid  by  the  increased 
quantity  of  product,  as  compared  with  hay ;  but  even 
taking  considerable  precautions,  it  may  occur  that  an 
inexperienced  person  will  not  be  able  to  save  his  crop  in 
good  condition  on  a  first  trial. 

THE    SORGHO  IN  TEXAS  THIS  TEAR. 

The  newspaper  accounts  from  Texas,  which  have 
recently  appeared,  state  the  fact,  that  in  all  parts  of  that 
state  the  Chinese  Sugar  Cane  has  manifested  its  superi- 
ority to  sowed  corn  in  withstanding  the  drouth. 

ITS  ABILITY  TO  WITHSTAND  DROUTH. 

This  entirely  agrees  with  my  experience  of  it  last 
summer ;  for  the  sorgho  did  not  manifest  its  real  rapidity 
of  growth  until  the  commencement  of  the  two  months 
"  heated  term"  which  we  endured.  "When  our  corn 
plants  drooped  and  curled  their  leaves,  the  sorgho  was 
not  only  unaffected  b)  the  heat,  but  daily  grew  in  beauty 


66  THE   CHINESE   SUGAR   CANE. 

of  appearance  and  height.  When  the  great  profits  of 
sowing  a  piece  of  corn  for  fodder,  to  be  cut  up  and  fed  to 
the  stock  in  their  stalls,  shall  have  become  generally 
appreciated,  we  may  confidently  look  for  the  universal 
practice  of  replacing  it  in  great  part  by  the  sorgho,  both 
because  of  its  multiplied  cuttings,  its  nutritive  properties, 
and  its  superior  ability  to  withstand  the  scorching  suns 
of  midsummer. 

ITS  NUTRITIVE  QUALITIES. 

It  may  perhaps  be  well  in  this  connection  to  refer 
to  the  fact  that  in  Cuba  the  negroes,  and  the  animals 
employed  on  the  sugar  plantations,  are  at  no  time  of 
the  year  compelled  to  undergo  more  unremitting  toil 
than  during  the  boiling  season ;  they  are  compelled  to 
keep  mills  and  boilers  at  work  night  and  day,  for  the 
season  allowed  them  to  work  up  the  crop  of  canes  is 
brief,  and  they  must  employ  their  time  to  the  best  ad- 
vantage. It  is  customary  to  work  the  hands  in  "  gangs," 
who  relieve  each  other  alternately,  one  gang  being  at 
work  while  the  other  rests.  Yet  with  all  this  it  is  a  fact 
evident  to  every  one  who  has  visited  an  "Ingenio,"  or 
sugar  plantation,  that  both  negroes  and  animals,  by 
reason  of  drinking  the  juice,  and  eating  the  stalks  of 
the  cane,  are  more  sleek  and  healthy  than  at  any  other 
season  of  the  year.  Now  this  increase  in  fat  is  chemically 
explained  by  the  presence  of  large  quantities  of  carbon 
in  the  form  of  sugar,  and  as  every  one  knows,  sugar 
and  fat  are  made  of  ingredients  entirely  the  same,  viz., 
carbon,  oxygen,  and  hydrogen.  If  this  be  borne  in 
mind,  then  it  will  be  no  more  than  fair  to  anticipate 


VALUE  AS  A   FORAGE    CROP.  67 

what  is  really  the  fact,  that  animals  fed  upon  the  sorgho 
stalks,  should  be  quickly  brought  into  a  sleek,  fat 
condition. 


SIZE  OP  STALKS  IN  NORTH  AFRICA. 

F.  Bourdais,  the  distiller,  at  Constantine,  Algeria,  says, 
and  he  calls  upon  Mr.  Hardy  to  testify  to  the  fact,  that  on 
his  place  he  has  had  a  number  of  sorgho  plants  which  sent 
up  sixteen  and  eighteen  suckers  to  a  height  of  twelve  feet, 
and  measured  four  inches  and  three  quarters  in  circum- 
ference at  the  base.  Numbers  of  others  sent  up  ten  and 
twelve  shoots;  and  the  average  of  his  field  was  six  and 
seven  shoots  from  a  single  seed. 


TESTIMONY  OF  DR.  TURREL  AND  LACOSTE. 

Dr.  Turrel,  in  his  article  to  the  Bulletin  Mensuel  de  la 
Societe  Imp.  Zool.  d?  Acclimation,  says,  that  his  pigs 
crunch  the  succulent  and  sweet  stalks  of  the  sorgho  with 
delight.  They  devour  the  seeds,  and  thrive  on  them. 
Grellet  Balquerie  maintains  that  sorgho  seed  can  be  fed 
to  horses  in  place  of  oats. 

Lacoste,  in  a  lettter  to  the  Imperial  Society,  says,  that 
"the  seeds  fattened  poultry,  and  for  feeding  to  horses, 
will  profitably  replace  barley;  and  for  this  one  thing, 
pay  all  costs  of  cultivation."  According  to  Professor 
Thompson,*  of  Glasgow,  the  barley  contains  11.31  per 
cent  of  nutritive  matter. 

*  Thompson's  "  Food  of  An;mals."  N.  T..  C.  M.  Saxton  &  Co- 


b»  THE   CHINESE   SUGAR  CAtfE. 

THE   TOTE  OF  THE  JURY  OF  ANIMALS. 

Animal  instinct  is,  after  all,  the  best  test  of  the  com- 
parative value  of  different  substances  for  forage ;  and, 
taking  this  view  of  the  case,  we  can  establish  beyond 
cavil  the  fact  that  sorgho  seed  is  good  feed  for  poultry 
and  birds  of  all  descriptions.  Sundry  of  the  French 
experimenters  lament  their  inability  to  protect  their 
sowings  of  seed  from  the  voracious  attacks  of  sparrows ; 
and  in  one  of  our  southern  states  the  entire  crop  of  seed, 
on.  a  small  plot  in  a  gentleman's  garden,  was  made  way 
with  by  his  chickens  and  pigeons. 

THE  COLORING  MATTERS  IN  THE  SEED. 

The  coloring  matter  in  the  hulls  is  so  easily  separated, 
and  carried  with  the  fluids  of  the  animal  body,  that  the 
flesh,  and  even  the  minute  cellular  structure  of  the  bones 
of  poultry,  fed  upon  sorgho  seed,  becomes  actually  dyed 
purple.  Mr.  Wray  says,  he  has  seen  in  Count  Beaure- 
gard's  poultry-yard,  the  droppings  of  chickens  fed  on 
the  seeds,  that  could  at  once  be  distinguished,  by  their 
purplish  hue,  from  those  of  the  other  inmates  of  the  yard. 
I  have  been  shown,  by  that  gentleman,  a  piece  of 
pigeon's  dung  that  had,  by  accident,  been  packed  in  a 
case  of  his  sorgho  seed-heads,  and  been  received  in  this 
country,  direct,  from  Hyeres,  which  was  as  purple  as  a 
mulberry  stain.  Of  course  it  will  be  understood,  that 
this  coloring  matter  is  entirely  without  taste,  and  no 
raj  ury  is  done  to  the  fowl.  In  fact,  it  may  become  a 
fashionable  thing  to  pay  extra  for  purple  broiled  chicken. 


VALUE  AS  A  FORAGE  CROP.  69 

YIELD  PER  ACRE  OP  SEED  AND  FODDER. 

In  respect  to  the  yield  of  seed  per  acre,  the  north,  says 
M.  d'lvernois,  cannot  hope  to  equal  the  south,  where 
sixty  bushels  are  produced.  This  result  was  obtained  in 
the  neighborhood  of  Hye'res.  In  our  own  country, 
Col.  Peters,  of  Georgia,  obtained  twenty-five  bushels  per 
acre,  of  thirty-six  pounds  per  bushel.  Gov.  Hammond, 
of  South  Carolina,  weighed  a  peck  after  three  days' 
drying  in  the  sun,  and  found  the  weight  to  be  thirty- 
eight  pounds  per  bushel.  I  have  weighed  several  lots 
from  Yilmorin,  Andrieux,  &  Co.,  of  Paris,  and  Count 
Beauregard,  and  found  the  weight  to  vary  from  forty  to 
forty-eight  pounds.  Mr.  Hyde  says  the  yield  is  from 
twenty-five  to  fifty  bushels  to  the  acre. 

Thus  we  see  that  on  partially  exhausted  wheat  soils, 
or  alluvial  soils,  both  of  which  are  specially  adapted  to 
the  sorgho,  instead  of  a  poor  yield  of  wheat,  we  may 
plant  the  former,  and,  not  taking  anything  else  into  con- 
sideration, obtain  a  crop  of  from  twenty-five  to  sixty 
bushels  of  seed. 

In  the  early  portion  of  this  chapter,  I  mentioned  that 
Mr.  Brown  said  that  nine  tons  of  dry  fodder  had  been 
cut  in  Kentucky  last  season :  Hon.  Marshall  P.  Wilder, 
president  of  the  United  States  Agricultural  Society,  tells 
me  that  he  knows  one  instance  where  19.844  Ibs.  of 
fodder  had  been  obtained,  the  weight  taken  after  a  three 
months'  drying.  The  weight  of  the  green  stalks  varies 
from  seven  to  forty  tons,  according  to  circumstances. 
The  Director  of  the  Government  Nursery  at  Hamma, 
Algiers,  in  his  report  to  the  Minister  of  War  (see 


70  THE  CHINESE  SUGAR  CANE. 

appendix),  says  lie  got  a  result  of  83,250  Ibs.  of  green 
forage,  per  acre.  Our  own  Patent  Office  Keport,  for  1855, 
says,  "  Aside  from  other  economical  uses,  its  value  for 
feeding  to  animals  alone,  in  every  section  of  the  Union 
where  it  will  thrive,  cannot  be  surpassed  by  any  other 
crop,  as  a  greater  amount  of  nutritious  fodder  cannot  be 
obtained  so  cheaply  in  a  given  space  within  so  short  a 
time ;  and  without  wishing  to  present  the  question  in  an 
extravagant  light,  it  may  be  stated,  that  this  crop  is 
susceptible  of  being  cultivated  within  the  territory  of  the 
United  States,  to  an  extent  equal  to  that  of  Indian  corn, 
say  25,000,000  acres  per  annum;  and  estimating  the 
average  yield  of  dry  or  cured  fodder  to  the  acre  at  two 
tons,  the  yearly  amount  produced  would  be  50,000,000 
tons,  which,  to  keep  within  bounds,  would  be  worth  at 
least  $500,000,000,  besides  the  profits  derived  from  the 
animals  in  milk,  flesh,  labor,  and  wool." 


SHOULD  NOT  BE  ALLOWED  TO  GROW  MORE  THAN  ONE  TEAR. 

It  is  not  at  all  desirable  to  suffer  the  stubble  of  canes 
sown  for  fodder  to  remain  all  winter  and  throughout  the 
subsequent  summer,  to  raise  a  second  year's  crop  of 
fodder  or  sugar ;  for  the  experience  of  Mr.  Hardy  shows 
that  the  shoots  of  the  second  year  are  not  larger  than 
one's  little  finger,  and  attain  only  a  feeble  growth,  the 
third  season  they  are  contemptible  in  size.  The  farmer 
may  well  be  contented  with  the  fodder  of  the  first  year's 
production,  for  if  it  be  thought  profitable  practice  to 
keep  land  in  grass  that  cuts  only  a  ton  or  a  ton  and  a  half 
per  acre,  what  should  be  our  estimate  of  a  fodder  crop  as 


VALUE  AS  A  FORAGE  CROP.  71 

good  as  hay,  and  giving  ten  tons  of  dried  nutritious  matter, 
with  but  light  manuring  ? 

If  a  farmer  has  a  field  lying  so  that  he  can  irrigate  it 
by  damming  tne  waters  of  some  small  creek  or  brooklet, 
and  by  means  of  a  flood-gate  turning  the  water  at  will 
into  small  plow  furrows,  running  alongside  each  row, 
it  certainly  would  be  very  judicious  practice  to  put  it 
into  sorgho  fodder ;  for  as  his  desire  is  not  to  make 
crystallized  sugar,  or  other  of  the  products  of  its  sweet 
juices,  excessive  irrigation  will  not  only  do  no  harm  to 
his  crop,  but  will  cause  magnificent  growths  of  plants  in 
every  way  suitable  for  nourishing  his  stock. 

It  must  not  be  supposed  that  because  Monsieur  Hardy 
and  others  have  obtained  ten  tons  of  dried  forage  from  an 
acre  of  sorgho,  the  labor  of  every  farmer,  without  res- 
pect to  peculiarities  of  practice,  soil,  or  climate,  will  be 
rewarded  to  an  equal  extent.  If  the  proper  soils  be 
selected,  and  the  proper  method  of  culture  be  pursued,  it 
lies  within  the  reach  of  all  to  duplicate  his  success.  With 
this  culture  in  all  its  phases,  forage,  syrup,  sugar,  or  any 
other,  good  judgment  and  perseverance  will  always  win 
the  prize. 


CHAPTEE   Y. 

SUGAR  AND   SUGAR  MAKING-. 


A  WEST  INDIAN  SUGAR  PLANTATIOX-CUTTING-CRUSHING-BOILLN7G. 

IT  is  useless  to  conceal  the  fact,  that,  despite  its  great 
excellence  as  a  forage  crop,  and  despite  its  other  manifold 
uses,  the  public  are  looking  to  the  sorgho  as  a  SUGAR 
PLANT  with  more  expectation  and  apprehension  than  in 
any  other  light.  Until  the  present  feverish  excitement 
shall  have  subsided  into  more  reasonable  and  practical 
channels,  it  must  be  expected  that  when  the  vivid  dreams 
of  sugar  planting  in  garden  spots  and  on  five  acre  corn 
fields,  now,  alas,  so  prevalent,  are  dispelled,  and  men 
begin  to  realize  that  a  good  sugar  plantation,  with  appro- 
priate buildings  and  machinery,  costs  a  vast  deal  of  money, 
much  dissatisfaction  will  be  experienced  and  publicly 
manifested.  For  this  reason,  and  to  shield  from  blows 
and  insults  a  promising  agricultural  staple,  I  have  chosen 
to  consider  it,  first,  as  a  forage  crop. 

As  yet,  the  sugar  made  from  the  juice  of  the  sorgho 
has  been  in  a  very  small  way — not  more  than  a  few 
ounces,  at  most,  at  one  time — and  as  this  chapter  is  writ- 
ten before  the  earliest  of  this  season's  crops  have  been 
worked  up,  I  cannot  speak  of  sorgho  sugar  making  on 
a  large  scale,  but  must  defer  such  remarks  to  appear  in 
the  Appendix,  after  I  have  been  to  South  Carolina  and 

[72] 


SUGAR  AND   SUGAR  MAKING.  73 

witnessed  the  extensive  operations  on  the  place  of  Gover- 
nor Hammond,  which,  I  trust,  will  occur  in  time  to  per- 
mit their  insertion  in  the  first  edition  of  this  work. 
Should  the  season,  however,  continue  as  inauspicious  as 
it  has  been  heretofore,  it  may  be  necessary  to  issue  the 
first  edition  to  fill  the  numerous  orders  already  received 
in  advance,  and  defer  until  the  second  edition  the  report 
on  the  southern  experiments. 

I  have  given  in  this  chapter  full  details  for  the  best 
processes  of  sugar  making,  and  engravings  of  suitable 
apparatus,  furnished  expressly  for  the  work  by  Mr.  John 
W.  Eeid,  of  No.  11  Old  Slip,  New  York,  and  made  from 
drawings  of  articles  which  he  furnishes  to  planters,  so 
that  in  case  it  is  proved  that  on  our  soil  and  in  our  cli- 
mate either  the  sorgho  or  the  imphee  may  really  rank  as 
sugar-producing  plants,  our  farmers  and  planters  may  be 
intelligently  advised  as  to  the  steps  necessary  to  pur- 
sue to  institute  sugar  making  experiments  on  a  large  or 
small  scale. 

THE  CAUSE  FOR  PRESENT  HIGH  PRICES. 

Speaking  of  the  great  need  which  is  felt  for  a  new 
sugar  plant,  the  "New  York  Tribune"  remarks  as  fol- 
lows : 

"  The  recent  general  enhancement  of  the  current  prices 
of  sugars,  though  stimulated  and  swelled  by  speculation, 
has  a  genuine  basis.  In  the  first  place,  there  is  an  in- 
crease of  several  per  cent,  in  the  population  of  the  civil- 
ized world  within  the  last  quarter  of  n,  century,  insuring 
a  like  increase  in  the  natural  demand  lor  sugar.  Then  it 
is  not  doubtful  that,  in  the  general  absence  of  wars,  the 
4 


74  THE   CHINESE   SUGAR   CANE. 

proportion  of  people  able  to  purchase  and  consume  sugar 
and  other  luxuries  to  the  extent  of  their  desires,  has  like- 
wise increased.  It  is  farther  true  that  the  general  manu- 
facture and  use  of  preserved  fruits,  &c.,  is  rapidly  increas- 
ing. But  the  successive  failures  of  the  grape  for  several 
years  past  has  led  to  the  diversion  of  the  beet  crop  of 
France,  which  is  very  large  and  important,  from  the 
production  of  sugar  to  that  of  brandy — the  French 
brandies,  formerly  made  of  the  juice  of  the  grape,  bear- 
ing a  reputation  and  a  price  throughout  the  world  which 
render  this  conversion  highly  profitable.  Hence  France, 
which,  from  Napoleon's  coronation  to  Louis  Phillippe's 
dethronement,  had  been  steadily  advancing  toward  the 
point  of  producing  her  own  sugar,  has  recently  been  fall- 
ing rapidly  back  to  a  position  of  dependence  for  her 
supply  on  the  tropical,  cane-growing  Indies.  It  is  under- 
stood that  the  production  of  sugar  in  the  British  West 
Indies  has  fallen  off  since  emancipation ;  the  liberated 
negroes  finding  employment  more  to  their  taste  than  the 
severe  labor  of  the  cane-field  and  sugar-mill ;  though  in 
British  Guiana  the  production  of  sugar  has  recently  been, 
and  is  still,  rapidly  increasing.  California  and  Australia 
have  had  some  part  in  producing  the  general  result,  those 
countries  producing  little  or  no  sugar  while  consuming 
largely,  and  at  the  same  time  increasing  the  world's  bul- 
lion, and  thereby  enhancing  the  prices  of  nearly  every- 
thing but  gold. 

"It  is  clear  that  the  annual  production  of  sugar  must 
be  increased  ;  but  where,  and  how  ?  The  severe  cold 
of  last  winter  destroyed  a  great  deal  of  cane,  and  practi- 
cally diminished  the  area  of  tropical  cane-growing  soil 


SUGAR   AND   SUGAR  MAKING.  75 

India,  and  the  adjacent  regions  of  Southern  Asia,  might 
produce  more  sugar ;  but  their  people  are  very  slow  to 
change  the  direction  of  their  industry,  while  those  of 
Spanish  America  have  little  industry  of  any  sort.  There 
is  more  sugar  land  in  the  West  Indies,  but  it  is  mainly 
wilderness,  which  can  only  be  converted  into  cane  fields 
at  heavy  cost  and  by  severe  labor — of  course,  quite 
slowly. 

"  In  view  of  these  facts,  inquiry  has  very  properly 
been  made  for  saccharine  plants  adapted  to  the  temperate 
zone,  and  which  may  be  profitably  employed  in  the  pro- 
duction of  sugar.  Until  some  plant  of  this  sort  is  found 
and  extensively  cultivated,  it  is  not  probable  that  the 
price  of  sugar,  as  measured  by  that  of  wheat,  beef,  and 
other  edibles,  will  be  essentially  reduced.  With  the 
prospect  of  an  active  demand  and  a  high  price  for  sugar 
through  several  years  ahead,  it  seems  but  reasonable  that 
the  sugar-producing  area  should  be  enlarged,  if  that  be 
found  practicable. 

"  That  there  is  no  lack  of  plants  from  which  sugar  may 
be  made,  is  well  known.  Indian  corn,  the  rock  maple, 
and  some  other  trees,  the  beet-root,  and  sundry  other 
esculents,  contain  and  yield  sugar,  but  generally  at  a  cost 
above  that  at  which  it  can  be  extracted  from  the  cane. 
There  is,  therefore,  a  real  and  realized  demand  for  a 
sugar-producing  plant  which  may  be  grown  in  temperate 
latitudes,  and  which  will  yield  nearly  or  quite  as  bounti- 
fully, in  view  of  their  relative  cost,  as  the  cane." 


76  THE   CHINESE  SUGAR  CANE. 

THE  "  AFRICAN  APPRENTICE  "  SYSTEM. 

There  is  another  problem  presented  for  solution  to 
the  world,  through  the  Government  of  the  Emperor 
Napoleon,  and  subsequently  by  the  British  Parlia- 
ment, in  which,  it  seems  to  me,  the  sorgho  and  imphee 
are  destined  to  have  an  important  influence.  "This 
proposition,  when  calmly  examined,  turns  out  to  be 
nothing  more  or  less  than  a  project  for  developing  the 
resources  of  the  French  West  Indian  Colonies,  by  the 
immediate  introduction  of  large  bodies  of  negro  laborers, 
to  be  engaged  on  terms  similar  to  those  under  which 
the  coolies  of  China  are  now,  and  have  for  some  time, 
been  transported  in  very  considerable  numbers  to  the 
colonial  territories  of  Great  Britain."  The  cause  for 
this  remarkable  proposition,  which  in  reality  amounts 
to  a  revival  of  the  African  slave  trade,  under  a  white- 
washed exterior,  is  found  in  the  greatly  augmented 
demand  for  sugars ;  and  the  simple  problem  has  been 
forced  upon  the  world:  in  what  way  can  a  sufficient 
staff  of  producers  be  most  speedily  thrown  upon  the  soil 
of  the  great  sugar-growing  countries  ?  Now,  if  it  can  be 
demonstrated  that  by  cultivating  the  imphee  and  the 
sorgho,  the  sugar  fields  can  be  so  widened  as  to  embrace 
the  countries  throughout  the  whole  Temperate  Zone, 
of  course  supply  at  once  runs  parallel  with  demand, 
and  the  present  alarming  scarcity  gives  way  to  plenteous 
abundance.  Although  it  is  warmly  urged  by  sugar 
planters,  that  free  labor  cannot  compete  with  slave  labor 
in  sugar  growing,  yet  this  assertion  must  be  received  cum 
grano  sails,  for  whilst  tropical  climates  may  raise  sugar 
to  the  exclusion  of  more  northern  ones,  when  prices 


SUGAR  AND   SUGAR  MAKING.  77 

are  so  low  as  to  make  white  labor  more  productive  in 
other  branches  of  industry,  yet  if  put  in  possession  of 
plants  suited  to  their  latitudes,  the  greatly  augmented 
price  of  sugar,. at  any  time,  would  withdraw  these  la- 
borers from  other  employments  to  turn  producers  of 
sugar,  for  their  families  first,  and,  from  their  surplus,  to 
supply  neighbors  and  friends.  Thus  the  strife  between 
the  two  is  no  longer  one  of  latitude,  but  has  become  one 
of  prices. 

The  common  sugar  cane  of  the  tropics,  "  Saccharum 
officinarum,"  being  of  the  same  family  with  the  plant 
now  treated  of,  and  its  juices  for  the  manufacture  of 
syrup,  or  sugar,  requiring  almost  an  identity  of  treatment, 
as  illustrating  this  part  of  my  subject  I  append  the 
following  description,  with  illustrations,  of  the  mode  of 
cultivating  cane  and  manufacturing  sugar  on  the  island 
of  Cuba,  from  the  pen  of  Mr.  Reid,  who  has  become 
thoroughly  conversant  with  the  matter  by  a  residence 
in  those  countries. 


THE  CULTIVATION  OP  SUGAR  IN  THE  ISLAND  OF  CUBA. 

On  the  island  of  Cuba,  farms  or  plantations,  are  di- 
vided into  three  distinct  classes:  the  "Ingenio,"  or  sugar 
estate,  (pronounced  Inhaneo) ;  the  "  Cafetal,"  or  coffee  and 
orange  estate,  (pronounced  Caftal) ;  and  the  "  Potrero,"  or 
farm,  where  stock,  grain,  or  vegetables  are  produced.  It 
being  with  the  first  of  these  only  that  our  subject  has  to 
do,  I  will  confine  my  remarks  to  the  "  Ingenio  "  alone ; 
and  if,  in  the  sequel,  I  should  at  any  time  mention  the 
word  "potrero,"  it  is  to  be  understood  as  referring, 


78  THE   CHINESE   SUGAB   CAKE. 

not  to  an  estate  exclusively  set  aside  for  the  purposes 
mentioned,  but  merely  as  relating  to  that  portion  of 
every  sugar  estate,  necessarily  set  apart  for  the  raising  of 
cattle,  and  for  such  crops  of  grain  or  fodder  as  are 
intended  for  its  own  consumption. 

There  are  about  two  thousand  five  hundred  sugar 
estates,  large  and  small,  to  be  found  on  the  island  of  Cuba 
ranging  in  size  from  the  one  having  only  fifty,  to  the 
one  with  over  fifteen  hundred  acres  of  cane  field  under 
cultivation.  These  are  the  extremes,  however  ;  the  aver- 
age of  the  whole  island  would  not  exceed  one  hundred 
and  fifty  to  two  hundred  acres  of  growing  cane  to  each 
estate  ;  requiring  to  cultivate  these,  and  carry  on  profita- 
bly the  business  of  the  plantation,  without  overworking 
the  negroes,  about  one  negro  to  every  two  acres.  Many 
planters,  however,  manage  to  get  along  with  fewer  hands 
than  this;  but  where  a  good  field  hand  is  worth  from 
eight  hundred  to  one  thousand  dollars,  it  must  be  evident 
that  the  over-work  which  ensues  from  planting  mere  cane 
than  the  gang  can  conveniently  handle,  in  the  end  proves 
the  most  expensive  economy  the  planter  can  adopt. 


SOIL. 

The  soil  of  Cuba  has  two  marked  characteristics  of 
color,  depending  upon  the  locality  where  each  is  found : 
the  one,  and  most  striking,  is  of  a  deep  red  or  Spanish 
brown  hue,  which  pigment  it  much  resembles,  soiling 
every  thing  which  it  touches  of  a  ruddy  tint — the  legs  of 
the  horses  and  cattle,  as  well  as  the  clothes  of  the  culti- 
vators ;  the  other  soil  is  a  rich  black  mould  or  humus, 


SUGAB   AND   SUGAB   MAKING.  7<) 

evidently  the  remains  of  old  swamp  or  morass.  This 
latter  is  to  be  found  chiefly  in  the  valleys  and  level 
tracts,  while  the  other  occupies  more  elevated  ground. 
The  island  is  evidently  of  coral  formation,  upheaved  by 
some  convulsion  of  nature  from  the  depths  of  the  ocean ; 
and  the  red  land,  as  it  is  called  in  contradistinction  to  the 
Mack  land,  seems  to  consist  of  decomposed  coral  rock, 
mixed  with  vegetable  carbon  and  a  metallic  oxide,  prob- 
ably iron,  which  gives  it  the  appearance  referred  to. 
Cubans  do  not  show  preference  for  either  soil,  but  in  my 
opinion,  the  black  soil  grows  better  sugar,  the  canes  be- 
ing in  every  way  superior. 

Although  the  soil  of  the  island  is  Avonderfully  fertile, 
producing,  without  apparent  diminution,  crop  after  crop 
of  sugar,  without  other  manure  than  the  cane  trash  left 
on  the  ground,  yet  even  on  "  the  ever  faithful  island " 
this  exhausting  process  cannot  and  does  not  go  on  for 
ever.  This  is  evidenced  by  the  fact  that  the  older  plan- 
tations are  no  longer  what  they  were  in  the  memory  of 
those  still  living ;  they  are  beginning  to  wear  out ;  the 
canes  are  becoming  short,  thin,  and  sparse  ;  and  in  a  few 
years  will  no  doubt  cease  to  yield  sugar  at  all,  unless 
the  proper  remedy  of  manure  be  applied.  But  as  an  evi- 
dence of  the  wonderful  fecundity  of  these  estates,  it  may 
be  interesting  to  know  that  some  of  them  are  over  one 
hundred  years  old. 


CULTIVATION 

As  regards  the  agricultural  processes  followed  by  the 
Creole  planters,  they  are  of  the  simplest  kind;  for,  al- 


80  THE   CHINESE   SUGAR   CAtfE. 

though  a  few  of  the  most  enterprising,  as  well  as  a  ffw 
planters  of  foreign  birth,  use  the  subsoil  plow  and  other 
labor-saving  machines,  jet  the  great  bulk  merely  scratch 
the  soil  with  hoes,  or  small,  rude  surface-plows ;  giving  as 
a  reason  for  going  no  deeper,  that  if  the  soil  be  turned 
up,  it  will  produce  fever  and  cholera  to  destroy  their 
negroes.  So  strong  is  this  belief,  that  when  a  friend  of 
the  writer,  some  years  ago,  imported  subsoil  plows  from 
the  United  States  for  use  on  his  plantation,  his  neighbors 
remonstrated,  and  threatened  a  law  suit ;  he  persisted, 
however ;  subsoiled  an  old  patch  nearly  worn  out,  planted 
his  seed,  and  was  rewarded  with  the  finest  crop  of  cane 
that  had  been  seen  in  the  district  for  years ;  no  fever  or 
cholera  resulted,  and  the  prejudice  was  eradicated  in  that 
part  of  the  country  at  all  events. 


PLANTING— RATTOONING. 

It  is  not  necessary  in  the  West  India  Islands,  as  in 
Louisiana,  to  plant  canes  every  year ;  there  being  no  frost 
there  to  kill  the  roots,  they  continue  to  throw  up  fresh 
shoots  for  many  years,  which  shoots  are  equally  good,  as 
if  sprung  from  canes  planted  each  season.  This  habit  is 
called  rattooning,  the  canes  so  growing  are  called  rattoons, 
and  the  roots,  in  favorable  soil,  will  continue  to  rattoon 
every  season  for  a  long  time.  As  an  instance  of  this,  the 
writer  on  one  occasion,  in  Cuba,  was  riding  with  a  planter, 
viewing  his  estate ;  we  came  to  a  fine  field  of  cane,  each 
cane  with  at  least  seven  to  eight  feet  of  sap,  and  thick  in 
proportion.  The  planter  drew  up  his  horse,  and,  point. 


SUGAR   AND   SUGAR   MAKING.  81 

ing  to  the  field,  asked  me  what  I  thought  of  it.  I  exam- 
ined it  more  critically,  and  although  the  joints  were 
pretty  close,  I  came  to  the  conclusion  that  it  was  cane  of 
the  third  or  fourth  year,  and  very  good  at  that.  I  said 
so  to  my  friend,  who  commenced  laughing,  and  told  me 
to  guess  its  age,  assuring  me  that  it  was  more  than  three 
years  planted.  I  guessed  seven,  ten,  fifteen,  and  even 
twenty  years,  with  no  better  success.  It  turned  out  that 
this  field  had  been  planted  by  the  father  of  my  friend, 
before  he  himself  was  born,  and  had  yielded  a  good  crop 
every  year  since.  My  friend,  at  the  time,  was  over 
thirty  years  old. 

In  Louisiana,  canes  are  planted  generally  in  rows,  six 
feet  apart  between  the  rows.  In  Cuba,  four  feet  is  the 
distance  allowed  between  each  row.  A  furrow,  or  series 
of  holes,  is  made,  four  or  five  inches  deep,  and  two  joints 
of  cane  put  in  side  by  side,  so  that  in  case  one  joint  fails 
to  germinate,  the  other  may  supply  its  place.  The  earth 
is  loosely  drawn  over  the  seed,  and,  with  the  exception 
of  occasional  weeding  till  the  plants  are  strong  enough 
to  take  care  of  themselves,  little  more  is  required  either 
for  young  plants  or  rattoons.  Latterly  the  Louisiana 
method  of  planting  six  feet  apart  has  been  introduced  on 
some  estates  with  good  results ;  and  there  can  be  little 
doubt  but  that,  if  the  same  energy  and  intelligence  pre- 
vailed in  Cuba  as  are  to  be  found  in  Louisiana,  this 
wonderfully  fertile  island  might  be  made  to  produce 
sufficient  sugar  to  supply  the  whole  world,  so  rich  and 
recuperative  is  its  soil,  and  so  admirable  its  climate. 
This  is  owing,  no  doubt,  to  its  situation  in  the  middle  of 
that  ocear  current  of  warm  water  called  the  Gulf  Stream. 
Here  frost  never  comes,  and  the  thermometer  is  seldom 


82  THE   CHINESE   SUGAR   CANE. 

known  to  descend  lower  than  65°  Fahrenheit  in  the 
open  air. 

BUILDINGS. 

Situated  as  near  as  possible  in  the  center  of  the  planta- 
tion, is  found  "the  mill  and  boiling-house,"  with  their 
appurtenances  of  negro-house,  cattle-sheds,  bagasse 
house,  &c.,  &c.  A  central  position  for  these  is  selected, 
so  as  to  be  equally  distant  from  all  the  cane  fields,  unless 
some  equally  important  objection  against  it  should  arise. 
Such  might  be  the  absence  of  water,  &c.  This  is  first  to 
be  looked  for  before  putting  up  the  buildings,  which  are 
generally  stone  structures,  with  a  large  chimney,  sixty  to 
ninety  feet  high,  into  which  all  the  flues  of  the  boiling- 
house  and  engine  lead.  The  chimney  is  the  most  im- 
portant part  of  the  whole  establishment.  If  this  should 
be  too  small,  or  should  not  draw  properly,  it  puts  a  stop 
to  everything.  Steam  cannot  be  got  up  in  the  boilers, 
therefore  the  mill  cannot  work ;  the  sugar  trains  only 
partially  boil,  and  general  consternation  prevails.  Such 
a  calamity,  however,  seldom  happens,  unless  a  planter 
should  have  foolishly  added  an  additional  train  of  kettles 
to  an  already  overtaxed  flue,  or  changed  his  machinery 
from  a  cattle  mill  to  a  steam  mill,  without  enlarging  his 
chimney,  or  building  a  separate  one  for  his  boilers.  The 
remedy  in  the  first  case  is  easy ;  in  the  second,  an  ad- 
ditional chimney  has  to  be  run  up  with  all  speed.  Acci- 
dents like  these  are  great  annoyances  to  planters,  being 
seldom  discovered  until  the  last  moment,  and  when  every 
day  is  valuable. 


SUGAR  AND   SUGAR   MAKING.  83 

PREPARING  FOR  CROP. 

For  a  month  or  three  weeks  before  the  crop  or  grinding 
season  commences,  the  sugar-house  presents  an  animated 
scene.  A  general  overhauling  of  the  whole  concern  is 
going  on.  The  cattle  pump  is  drawing  water  from  the 
river  or  large  well,  as  the  case  may  be,  and  it  is  being 
used  plentifully  everywhere;  the  engine  and  mill  are 
being  taken  to  pieces  by  the  engineer  (generally  an 
American),  and  carefully  examined,  to  see  that  no 
injury  has  been  sustained  during  last  crop.  The  kettles 
are  being  scrubbed  out ;  the  coolers  tightened  up  and 
cleaned ;  the  molasses  tanks  purified  from  the  cock- 
roaches and  rats  that  have  met  an  untimely  end  in  them  ; 
and  the  whole  buildings,  so  far  as  practicable,  are  being 
whitewashed  with  lime.  In  short,  the  sugar  house  has 
been  in  a  state  of  slow  fermentation  since  last  crop,  and 
must  be  sweetened  by  plentiful  closes  of  lime  and  water,  to 
render  it  fit  for  new  operations.  This  being  "effected,  the 
engineer  informs  the  overseer,  or  mayoral, '  that  he  is 
ready  to  commence  grinding.  The  mayoral,  on  his  part, 
has  examined  the  condition  of  the  various  cane  fields,  and 
made  up  his  mind  what  field  he  will  cut  first.  A  day  is 
appointed  to  commence  grinding,  probably  the  10th  to 
the  20th  November.  Until  then  a  general  lull  takes 
place,  and  every  one,  from  the  "  mayoral "  to  the  latest 
imported  "  Bozal  nigger"  enjoys  himself  according  to  his 
taste.  The  negroes  choose  sleeping,  dancing,  or  beating 
the  "gumbo,"  and  the  white  Creoles  gambling  at  monte, 
or  attending  the  nearest  "baile,"  or  ball. 
4* 


84 


THE   CHINESE   SUGAR   CANE. 


COMMENCING  WORK. 


The  important  morning  at  length  arrives.  The  field 
gangs  are  told  off  by  the  mayoral,  at  daybreak,  and,  armed 
with  their  machetes,  or  cane  knives  (Figures  1  and  2),  they 


start  for  the  point  decided  upon,  followed  by  a  string  of 
bullock  carts,  to  bring  the  cane  to  the  mill  as  soon  as  it 
is  cut.  Each  field  gang  has  its  negro  mayoral,  or  over- 
seer, armed  with  a  long,  gayly  mounted  machete,  in  place 
of  a  sword,  and  provided  with  a  stout  whip  to  keep 
loafers  in  order,  but  which,  I  must  say,  is  very  little 
used.  The  field  being  reached,  those  provided  with 
machetes  (generally  two  thirds  of  the  gang),  attack  the 
canes.  Seizing  them  with  the  left  hand,  they  draw  the 
cane  slightly  towards  them,  and  with  one  blow  sever  it 
close  to  the  root,  strip  off  its  leaves  in  a  twinkling,  top 
it,  and  cut  it  into  two  or  three  lengths,  as  the  case 
requires,  and  throw  it  behind  them,  in  less  time  than  it 
has  taken  to  describe.  Women  and  children  gather  the 
scattered  canes  into  heaps,  from  which  they  are  loaded 
into  the  bullock  carts  and  carried  off  to  the  mill.  Arriv- 
ed there,  they  drive  under  the  cane  shed,  and  deposit 
their  loads  close  to  the  cane  carrier,  which  is  an  endless 
chain,  carrying  a  series  of  slats,  or  boards,  leading  direct 


SUGAK   AND   SUGAR   MAKING.  85 

to  the  feed-board  of  the  mill,  and  moving  on  rollers  with 
the  motion  of  the  machine,  but  so  arranged  as  to  be 
stopped  when  required,  independent  of  the  mill.  On  the 
other  side  of  the  mill — which  consists  of  three  horizontal 
iron  rollers,  set  two  alongside  each  other,  and  one  on  the 
top,  held  in  place  by  a  very  strong  cast  iron  frame,  which 
is  bolted  down  firmly  to  the  foundation — is  seen  another 
similar  arrangement,  for  carrying  away  the  crushed  canes, 
or  bagasse,  after  the  juice  has  been  crushed  out.  This  is 
called  the  bagasse-carrier,  and  delivers  the  crushed  canes 
Erectly  into  an  ox  or  mule  cart  set  beneath  it,  which 
carries  it  away  to  its  appropriate  receptacle.  An  admirable 
representation  of  the  three  roller  horizontal  cane  mill,  with 
its  cane  and  bagasse  carriers,  drawn  from  one  actually  in 
use,  may  be  seen  by  reference  to  the  frontispiece 


CRUSHING. 

Nearly  enough  cane  having  been  cut  to  yield  juice 
sufficient  to  fill  all  the  kettles  and  clarifiers,  fires  are 
lighted  under  the  steam  boilers  for  the  purpose  of  pro- 
curing the  power  to  start  the  mill. 

Steam  is  soon  generated  by  the  sharp,  clear  flame  of 
last  year's  bagasse,  which  has  been  stored  away  on  pur- 
pose, and  is  dry  as  tinder,  and  by  this  time  there  is  a 
sufficiency  of  cane  under  the  shed  to  make  a  commence- 
ment. The  engine  is  set  in  motion,  and  with  it  the  mill, 
the  rollers  of  which  are  brought  very  close  together  by 
means  of  large  screws  fixed  in  the  iron  frame  for  that 
purpose.  The  distance  between  the  first  and  second  is 
generally  one  eighth  or  three  sixteenths  of  an  inch,  while 


86  THE   CHINESE   SUGAR   CANE. 

between  the  second  and  third,  if  the  engineer  can  get  the 
blade  of  his  knife  between,  he  considers  it  about  correct. 
The  negroes  throw  the  canes  on  to  the  carrier,  which 
delivers  them  to  the  mill,  they  pass  between  the  rollers 
slowly,  while  the  juice  spurts  and  streams  down  between 
and  in  all  directions  into  the  "juice  pan,"  from  whence 
it  flows  by  a  canal  either  direct  to  the  clarifiers.  or  is 
pumped  up  into  a  receiver,  and  thence  distributed  where 
required.  '  Meanwhile,  the  canes  that  have  been  crushed 
are  no  longer  canes,  but  bagasse  ;  they  are  received  from 
the  carrier  as  before  stated,  and  spread  to  dry  in  the  sun, 
to  be  subsequently  stored  away  in  appropriate  sheds  for 
the  fuel  of  next  year. 

THE  BATTERY. 

We  have  now  "  commenced  crop  ;"  the  juice  tank  is 
full,  and  we  must  commence  boiling  ;  but,  before  doing 
so,  we  must  describe  the  u  battery  "  or  "  train  "  of  kettles, 
how  they  are  placed,  and  what  is  the  object  of  each  ;  as 
also  the  preliminary  operation  of  "testing"  the  juice. 
The  juice  generally  stands  at  a  strength  of  seven  to  eight 
degrees  in  November,  and  ten  to  eleven  in  March  and 
April. 

TESTING  THE  JUICE. 

Immediately  on  the  first  juice  running  from  the  mill, 
the  planter,  if  he  be  a  working  man,  and  there  are  many 
such  even  in  Cuba,  may  be  seen  anxiously  testing  the 
amount  of  saccharine  matter,  or  sugar,  in  his  juice,  for 


SUGAR  AND   SUGAR   MAKING. 


87 


on  this  depends  the  value  of  his  crop.  To  find  out  this, 
he  uses  a  small  instrument  called  a  "saccharometer,"  either 
of  brass  or  glass,  as  shown  at  figures  3  and  4,  as  al-o  a 
small  copper  test  dipper,  figure  5,  in  which  he  floats  the 
saccharometer. 


0 

ft/s.3. 


The  instrument  most  in  use  is  that  of  Beaumd,  of 
Paris.  This  is  marked  in  degrees  from  0°,  which  repre- 
sents water,  up  to  50°.  Each  degree  represents,  by 
weight,  nineteen  parts  in  a  thousand  of  the  solution  of 
sugar  and  water  in  which  it  is  placed.  If,  therefore,  the 
juice  in  November  marks  8°,  it  shows  that  we  have 
eight  times  nineteen  parts  in  a  thousand,  or  15,2ff  per 
cent,  of  sugar.  If  in  March  it  marks  11°  on  the  saccha- 
rometer, then  we  know  that  we  have  eleven  times  '019, 
or  20  per  cent,  nearly,  of  sugar  in  the  juice.  When  the 
juice  exceeds  11°  or  12°  by  boiling,  '018  is  nearer  the 
amount  of  sugar  to  a  degree  Beaume  than  '019,  and 
ought  to  be  taken  instead  as.  a  basis  in  making  the  cal- 
culation. Thin  cane  juice,  hot  or  cold,  will  mark  the 
same  on  the  saccharometer,  but  when  it  is  in  the  state  of 
syrup,  it  will  mark  much  more  cold  than  hot ;  therefore, 
when  you  test  boiling  syrup,  add  three  degrees  to  the. 


88  'JHE   CHINESE   SUGAR  CANE. 

saccharometer  to  represent  the  true  density  cold.     With 
molasses,  add  four  degrees. 

The  range  of  open  pans  or  kettles  used  to  evaporate 
the  expressed  juice  of  the  cane  to  the  necessary  consist- 
ency at  which  granulation  takes  place,  and  crystallized 
sugar  is  formed,  is  termed  "the  train,"  and  is  either  a 
"steam,"  or  an  "ordinary"  train,  according  as  steam  or 
fire  is  the  medium  of  evaporation.  Steam  trains  are 
arranged  in  such  a  variety  of  ways,  that  they  possess  no 
general  character,  whereas  the  old  fashioned  sugar  train 
is  the  same  as  it  was  fifty  years  ago,  with  a  few  slight 
alterations,  and  of  this  alone,  shall  I  give  a  description ; 
for,  after  all,  when  properly  managed,  it  is  as  good  as 
the  other  for  "  Muscovado  "  sugar,  and  much  more  avail- 
able in  many  situations. 


SETTING  THE  TRAIN. 

The  latest  and  most  improved  method  of  setting  a 
train,  is  as  follows :  First,  suppose  a  straight  flue,  say 
forty  feet  long,  one  end  entering  the  great  chimney,  and 
the  other  end  supplied  with  furnace,  grate  bars,  ash  pit, 
and  an  opening,  with  or  without  doors,  for  pushing  in 
the  bagasse  used  for  fuel.  This  flue  runs  along  one  of  the 
side  walls  of  the  building,  so  that  the  mouth  of  the  fur- 
nace is  outside ;  the  flue  is  so  arranged  that  the  upper 
edges  of  the  pans,  when  set,  shall  stand  about  two  feet, 
or  thirty  inches,  above  the  floor  of  the  boiling  house ; 
this  puts  the  furnace  under  ground,  so  an  area,  as  it 
were,  is  cut  round  that  side  of  the  house,  into  which  the 
dry  bagasse,  for  fuel,  is  discharged  from  a  cart  which 


SUGAR  AND  SUGAR  MAKING.          89 

brings  it  from  the  bagasse  house.  It  thus  lies  convenient 
to  be  picked  up  by  the  fireman,  and  pushed,  by  the  arm 
full,  into  the  furnace  mouth. 

The  pans  are  arranged  in  a  line  along  this  flue,  ex- 
cepting the  oblong  sheet  iron  or  copper  defecators ;  these 
come  last,  and  stand  side  by  side.  The  flue,  before 
reaching  them,  spreads,  and  is  divided  by  party  walls 
into  three  parts  or  parallel  flues,  each  the  size  of  the 
main  flue ;  each  of  these  passages  is  supplied  with  a 
sliding  damper,  hung  and  balanced  by  a  weight,  so  that 
the  fire  on  its  way  to  the  great  chimney  may  be  shut  off 
from  one  or  other  of  them  at  will,  by  dropping  the  damper 
in  front  of  it.  The  center  flue  has  nothing  over  it,  and 
is  the  regular  course  the  fire  would  take  in  going  direct 
to  the  chimney.  Over  the  other  two  flues  the  defecators 
are  set,  so  that  by  dropping  the  damper  in  the  middle 
flue,  and  raising  one  of  the  side  ones,  the  fire  is  turned 
aside,  and  passing  under  the  defecator,  the  damper  of 
which  has  been  raised,  heats  its  contents.  It  may  then 
be  turned  under  the  other  by  the  same  means.  When 
both  are  heated,  the  fire  may  be  shut  off  at  the  instant, 
and  allowed  to  follow  its  old  course  to  the  chimney. 

It  is  well  to  understand  the  proper  setting  of  these 
defecators,  as  on  them,  in  a  great  measure,  depends  the 
success  of  future  operations.  The  flue  is  so  built  as  to 
allow  the  defecators,  which  are  shallow,  never  over 
eighteen  or  twenty  inches  deep,  to  discharge  their  con- 
tents, by  a  pipe,  into  the  first  "clarifier,"  which  is  dis- 
tant sufficiently  to  allow  of  a  free  passage  between  it 
and  the  defecators ;  these  have  a  platform  of  stone  or 
brick  around  them,  to  allow  a  man  to  walk  about  and 


90  THE   CHINESE   SUGAR  CANE. 

remove  the  scum  and  feculencies.  Each  defecator  ought 
to  contain  as  much  as  the  clarifier  into  which  it  dis- 
charges itself. 

CLARIPIERS. 

The  first  and  second  clarifiers  are  two  iron  pans  set 
deep  in  the  brick  work,  which  is  lined  with  light  sheet 
copper ;  so  as  to  add  to  the  size  of  the  pans,  a.  sort  of  gut- 
ter surrounds  these  two.  The  second,  which  may  be  a 
little  the  smallest,  should  stand  about  two  inches  higher 
than  the  first,  so  that  when  it  overflows  in  boiling,  its 
contents  may  be  able  to  flow  back  into  the  first  kettle, 
but  none  from  the  first  flow  forward  into  it ;  the  gutter 
which  surrounds  these  two  isolates  them  from  the  two 
next  pans,  and  has  an  opening  on  one  side  leading  to  a 
scum,  or  overflow  kettle,  set  alongside  the  train  and  fur- 
nished with  a  pump,  but  has  no  fire  under  it,  being 
merely  intended  as  a  recipient  for  the  scum  and  feculen- 
cies which  have  not  been  entirely  removed  in  the 
defecator,  and  which  are  swept  and  skimmed  from  these 
two  pans  during  rapid  ebullition.  The  overflow  is 
pumped  back  into  the  clarifiers  as  soon  as  it  settles,  by 
the  pump  referred  to.  The  peculiar  arrangement  of  the 
the  gutter,  it  is  almost  impossible  to  describe  without 
diagrams. 

EVAPORATORS. 

Next  to  the  second  clarifier  comes  the  first  evaporator, 
placed  deep  in  the  brick  work,  and  having  a  sort  of  curb 


SUGAR  AND  SUGAK  MAKING.          91 

or  collar  of  jght  copper,  riveted  to  its  rim ;  this  flares 
considerably,  and  comes  clear  up  to  the  level  of  the 
brick  work,  which  arrangement  nearly  doubles  the 
capacity  of  the  vessel,  and  allows  of  the  rise  of  the  fluid 
and  froth  during  the  strong  ebullition  which  occurs  in 
this  pan. 

Last,  and  directly  over  the  furnace,  is  placed  the  "  ta- 
cho,"  or  teach,  arranged  precisely  like  the  preceding,  but 
its  copper  curb  raised  an  inch  or  an  inch  and  a  half  higher  ; 
so  that  should  it  boil  over,  the  syrup  might  run  back 
into  the  evaporator,  while  the  thinner  liquor  of  the 
evaporator,  should  it  in  turn  boil  over,  could  not  run  for- 
ward into  it. 

Lastly,  the  kettles  being  all  set,  the  brick  work  is  cov- 
ered with  a  board  frame  work,  like  a  billiard  table  or 
bagatelle  board,  only  the  edges  are  not  so  high.  Holes 
are  cut  for  the  various  pans,  and  the  whole  covered 
nicely  with  light  sheet  copper ;  the  purpose  of  this 
arrangement  being,  that  suppose  all  the  kettles  to  boil 
over,  one  after  the  other,  or  all  at  once,  the  overflow  from 
the  teach  would  run  down  the  inclined  plane  into  the 
evaporator,  the  overflow  from  the  evaporator  would 
run  in  turn  into  the  second  clarifier,  and  this  into  the  first, 
which  would  relieve  itself  into  the  scum  kettle. 

Leading  from  the  juice  pan  of  the  mill — which,  for 
convenience,  should  be  raised  high  enough,  to  give  the 
necessary  inclination — a  wooden  canal  conveys  the  j  nice, 
and  delivers  it  into  a  wooden  "juice  receiver,"  sometimes 
lined  with  copper  or  lead,  placed  somewhere  near  but 
above  the  level  of  the  defecators,  to  one  or  other  of  which 
a  connection  may  be  made  by  a  moveable  trough,  or  suit- 


92  THE   CHINESE   SUGAR  CANE. 

able  pipes.  This  receiver  should  hold  sufficient  to  fill 
both  clarifiers,  as  well  as  the  evaporator  and  teach,  al- 
though, except  at  the  start,  it  is  only  required  to  supply 
the  two  defecators. 

THE  TRAIN  AT  WORK. 

Suppose  now  that  the  juice  tank  is  full,  the  movable 
wooden  gutter  is  directed  to  each  pan  in  succession,  and 
fills  them  all  nearly  full  of  juice.  The  fire  is  lighted  and 
the  train  is  started ;  when  the  juice  gets  a  little  warm,  a 
small  portion  of  shell  lime,  or  cream  of  lime,  is  added, 
according  as  the  judgment  of  the  sugar  master  may  dic- 
tate, in  order  to  neutralize  the  free  acid  present  in  the 
juice,  and  assist  in  coagulating  the  vegetable  albumen, 
which  has  been  expressed  from  the  canes  along  with  the 
juice,  by  the  action  of  the  mill.  As  the  heat  increases, 
this  forms  a  thick  scum,  which  is  taken  oft  as  fast  as  it 
rises,  by  a  skimmer,  while  the  froth  is  beaten  down  by  a 
long  wooden  instrument,  like  a  cavalry  saber  on  a  large 
scale,  the  handle  being  prolonged  two  or  three  feet. 

Ebullition  soon  commences  all  over  the  train,  but,  of 
course,  most  rapidly  in  those  kettles  nearest  the  furnace, 
and  which  are,  besides,  the  smallest.  As  the  juice  re- 
duces in  the  teach,  it  is  supplied  by  bailing  from  the 
evaporator  into  it,  which  in  turn  receives  from  the  second 
clarifier,  while  the  first  is  filled  up  from  the  defecator. 
This  is  the  mode  of  starting  the  train,  but  owing  to  the 
kettles  being  all  empty  at  the  beginning,  the  juice  has 
had  no  regular  defecation,  and  in  consequence,  should  the 
first  strike  not  turn  out  well,  little  anxiety  is  felt  by  the 
planter. 


SUGAR  AND  SUGAR  MAKING.          93 

So  far,  neither  of  the  defecators  have  come  iiito  play, 
enough  juice  has  been  collected  in  the  receiver  to  fill  one 
of  them.  The  cock  of  the  receiver  is  opened,  and  while 
it  is  running  in,  the  sugar  master  takes  a  little  of  the 
juice  in  a  glass,  and  tests  it  with  litmus  paper,  which, 
from  a  deep  blue,  changes  in  an  instant  to  a  deep  red, 
when  dipped  into  the  juice,  should  an  excess  of  acid  be 
present.  The  juice  is  always  acid,  more  or  less,  therefore 
the  question  is  not  whether  he  will  add  lime  or  not,  but 
how  much.  Having  before  prepared  lime  water,  or  mixed 
some  cream  lime  on  the  spot,  the  damper  being  raised,  and 
the  fire  playing  on  the  bottom  of  the  defecator,  he  stirs  in 
small  portions  of  the  lime  water  or  cream  of  lime,  till  the 
litmus  paper,  which  at  first  became  bright  red  on  being 
immersed,  now  shows  only  a  faint  rose  color.  Here  he 
stops,  the  juice  is  nearly  neutral,  neither  too  acid  nor  too 
alkaline,  requiring  but  heat  to  make  a  good  defecation, 
or  separation  of  its  albuminous  and  other  feculencies, 
which,  as  the  heat  increases,  rise  to  the  top  in  the  form  of 
a  thick,  dirty  crust,  leaving  the  clear  juice  underneath. 
The  moment  the  first  signs  of  ebullition  are  perceived, 
the  damper  is  let  down,  and  the  juice  allowed  to  rest  for 
fifteen  or  twenty  minutes,  when  it  may  be  drawn  off  un- 
derneath, clear  and  bright,  leaving  the  dirty  scum  to  be 
cleaned  out  when  the  defecator  is  washed  for  the  next 
charge.  After  the  train  has  been  started,  one  or  other 
of  the  defecators  is  always  full,  while  the  other  is  being 
cleaned  out,  and  so  on  during  the  crop. 

Figure  7,  represents  the  section  of  a  train,  such* 
as  has  been  described,  viz.,  four  pans  and  two  defe- 
cators. 


SUGAR  AND   SUGAR  MAKING.  95 

A  is  the  defecator,  B  the  first  clarifier,  C  the  second 
ditto,  D  evaporator,  E  teach,  strike  pan,  or  second  evapo- 
rator, P  the  damper  of  the  defecator,  G  a  small  ridge  in 
the  frame  of  the  train,  to  prevent  the  concentrated  juice 
from  the  evaporator  and  teach,  in  cases  of  overflow,  run- 
ning back  to  the  clarifiers ;  H  is  the  furnace,  1 1 1 1  the 
flue  leading  to  the  general  chimney. 

The  following  cut  (Figure  8)  shows  a  transverse  section 
of  the  train,  to  illustrate  the  setting  of  the  pans : 


Fig.  8 


When  once  the  train  is  started  it  goes  on  night  and 
day,  with  an  occasional  stoppage  of  a  day,  now  and 
then,  to  wash  up,  clear  out  the  juice  tanks  and  gutters, 
and  do  any  little  repairs  that  may  be  necessary,  as  well 
also  as  to  give  the  negroes  a  holiday,  which  at  this  time 
they  employ  in  sleep ;  not  getting  too  much  of  the  latter 
while  crops  last,  especially  if  sugar  is  high,  and  it  is  an 
object  to  get  it  soon  to  market. 

Belonging  to  every  estate  there  are  a  few  old  hands 
experienced  in  sugar-boiling,  who  can  make  just  as  good' 
a  strike  of  sugar  as  any  sugar  master,  and  to  them  is  in- 
trusted the  operations  of  the  "battery,"  with  the  sugar 


96  THE   CHINESE   SUGAR  CANE. 

master  to  overlook  them.  But,  it  may  be  said,  if  these 
negroes  boil  so  well,  why  employ  a  sugar  master  at  so 
much  expense  every  year?  The  fact  is,  there  is  no 
dependence  to  be  placed  on  the  negro,  for  just  at  the  most 
critical  point  when  the  sugar  ought  to  be  "struck"  into 
the  cooler  it  is  very  probable,  if  left  to  themselves,  they 
would  lie  down  and  go  to  sleep,  not  from  fatigue,  but 
laziness,  or  thoughtlessness,  and  yet  they  take  consider- 
able interest  in  their  owner's  concerns. 

At  the  commencement  of  crop,  when  the  first  strike 
is  nearly  finished,  all  the  interest  of  the  sugar-house  cen- 
ters in  the  lazy,  rich,  golden  fluid  in  the  teach,  which  has 
ceased  to  froth  or  bubble,  and  from  which  the  steam  is 
now  escaping  in  short  puffs.  The  old  negro,  who  has 
probably  boiled  at  that  train  for  twenty  years,  and  knows 
exactly  how  the  juice  of  the  estate  works,  after  taking  a 
little  of  the  syrup  between  his  finger  and  thumb,  and 
watching  what  string  it  made,  informs  the  sugar  master 
that  the  sugar  is  ready  to  strike  into  the  coolers.  He, 
who  probably  has  never  boiled  on  the  estate  before,  and 
has  yet  to  learn  how  its  juice  must  be  treated,  has  wisely 
left  the  matter  in  the  hands  of  the  negro.  However,  it 
will  not  do  to  let  Sambo  suppose  that  he  knows  more 
than  his  master.  So  the  sugar  master,  who  knows  that 
half  a  minute  will  not  make  much  difference,  delays  the 
strike  for  that  time,  pulls  out  his  watch,  if  he  has  one, 
looking  very  wise,  and  at  length  consents  to  let  Pancho 
or  Pedro  adjust  the  gutter,  from  the  kettle  to  the  cooler 
ten  feet  distant  and  discharge  the  pan.  The  fireman  is 
bawled  to  to  stop  the  fire,  and  the  sugar  is  bailed  into  the 
gutter  to  be  conducted  to  the  cooler. 


SUGAR  AND  SUGAR  MAKING. 


97 


The  annexed  cuts  represent  the  appliances  for  skim- 
ming, dipping,  bailing,  and  striking. 

Figure  9  is  the  common  dipper,  used  for  almost  all  the 
purposes  of  handling  small  portions  of  juice  or  syrup. 

Figure  10  is  the  bailing  dipper,  holding  five  or  six 
gallons,  and  used  to  remove  the  charge  of  one  kettle  into 
another,  as  also  to  strike  the  charge  into  the  coolers. 

Figure  11  represents  the  ordinary  skimmer,  for  remov- 
ng  the  scum  from  the  clarifiers. 


THK  COOLERS. 

These  coolers  are  generally  oblong  wooden  troughs, 
made  of  two  inch  pine  wood,  ten  feet  long,  five  feet  broad, 
and  ten  to  twelve  inches  deep.  They  are  set  parallel 
with  the  train  in  a  double  row,  six  in  each  row.  Each 
cooler  holds  three  "  strikes,"  which  are  not  made  one 
over  the  other  directly,  but  as  follows :  three  strikes  are 
made  in  three  separate  coolers,  then  commencing  with 
the  first  again.  This  is  to  give  the  first  strike  an  oppor- 
tunity to  cool.  "While  the  sugar  is  cooling,  the  sugar 
master  takes  a  light  wooden  instrument,  like  a  small  rake 
without  teeth,  and  hauls  it  up  and  down  the  cooler  so  as 
to  agitate  the  mass  and  promote  crystallization;  once 
5 


98  THE  CHINESE  SUGAR  CANE. 

after  each  strike  is  often  enough  to  do  this,  and  in  a  few 
hours  the  sugar  ought  to  set,  or  grain. 

On  the  second  or  third  day  it  is  usual  to  empty  the 
coolers;  two  big  stout  negroes,  bare  all  but  a  "breech 
clout,"  get  into  them  with  shovels,  and  dig  out  the  sugar: 
not  so  easy  a  job,  now  that  the  crystal  has  got  set.  A 
dozen  women  get  their  small  copper  basins  or  tubs 
filled  with  the  melado,  or  unpurged  sugar,  and  carry  it 
on  their  heads  to  the  purging  house,  where  hogsheads, 
with  holes  duly  perforated  in  the  bottom,  have  been  pre- 
pried  beforehand.  They  empty  their  basins  into  the 
nearest  until  it  is  full,  and  so  on  to  the  next. 


PURGING. 

The  sugar  when  it  goes  into  the  cooler,  is  a  dark, 
brown-looking  substance,  being  composed  of  sugar  and 
molasses,  mixed  in  the  proportion  of  say  sixty  of  the  for- 
mer to  forty  of  the  latter.  This,  when  put  into  a  hogs- 
head with  a  perforated  bottom,  soon  begins  to  drip  or 
purge,  provided  the  place  be  moderately  warm.  The 
floor  of  the  purging  house  is  nothing  more  than  joists 
without  boards,  while  underneath  is  a  large  tank  or  tanks 
of  wood  or  concrete,  to  receive  the  molasses  as  it  drops 
down  as  the  hogshead  purges.  The  sugar  settles,  and 
this  has  to  be  supplied  by  fresh  additions  either  of 
purged  sugar  from  other  hogsheads,  or  by  more  melado 
from  the  coolers.  After  about  thirty  days,  it  is  headed 
up,  and  taken  out  of  the  purging  house,  and  either  put 
into  the  storehouse,  or,  with  another  hogshead  on  a  bul- 
lock-oart,  it  is  sent  to  the  nearest  seaport. 


SUGAR  AND   SUGAR  MAKING. 

THE  CLAYING  PROCESS. 

On  some  estates  only  a  portion  of  the  sugar  is  made 
into  Muscovado,  which  is  the  process  I  have  been  de- 
scribing. To  make  "clayed"  sugar  requires  a  little  dif- 
ferent treatment;  it  is  a  follows: 

Conical  moulds,  of  tin,  zinc,  or  sheet  iron,  with  an  aper- 
ture at  the  small  end,  are  provided — for  large  estates  to 
the  extent  of  many  thousands.  These  are  set  on  -the 
floor  of  the  purging  house,  on  perforated  boards,  which 
receive  the  small  end  and  keep  them  upright.  The  aper- 
ture at  the  bottom,  which  is  three  quarters  of  an  inch  to 
one  inch  wide,  is  stopped  either  with  a  piece  of  wood  pre- 
pared for  the  purpose,  or,  as  is  often  done,  a  joint  of  cane 
is  used  as  a  plug.  The  sugar,  being  boiled  a  little  stiffer 
than  if  intended  for  the  cooler,  is  first  put  into  a  wooden 
box  running  on  wheels,  rather  deep  and  long,  in  which 
it  is  agitated  with  a  short  oar  for  some  time,  until  it  has 
cooled  somewhat,  and  crystals  have  begun  to  form.  It 
is  then  filled  into  the  moulds,  the  box  being  wheeled 
alongside  of  them.  These  moulds  contain  from  eighty  to 
one  hundred  and  twenty  pounds  of  hot  sugar.  In  a  day 
or  two,  when  the  sugar  master  considers  that  the  con- 
tents of  the  moulds  are  well  crystallized,  the  plugs  are 
removed,  and  the  molasses  soon  begins  to  separate  from 
the  crystals  and  run  out.  The  operator  to  hasten  this, 
however,  and,  as  it  were,  to  wash  the  crystals  as  clean  as 
possible,  gets  some  good  porous  clay,  mixes  it  well  into 
a  thin,  creamy  paste  with  water,  and  pours  it  over  the 
top  of  the  sugar  in  the  mould.  The  clay  remains  on  the 
top  of  the  sugar,  while  it  allows  the  water  to  percolate 


100  THE   CHINESE   SUGAB  CANE. 

down  through  the  loaf,  and  thus  wash  the  crystals  free 
from  their  mother  liquor,  or  molasses.  When  the  water 
has  all  left,  the  clay  may  be  lifted  off  the  mould  like  a 
large  brown  cake  of  gingerbread,  without  soiling  the 
hands  or  injuring  the  sugar.  This  is  what  is  termed 
"claying,"  and  produces  the  "clayed"  sugar  of  com- 
merce. 

If  the  sugar  is  desired  to  be  very  white,  claying  may 
be  repeated  two  or  three  times,  but  each  time  at  the  ex- 
pense of  the  crystal,  which  is  washed  away  just  in  pro- 
portion as  the  sugar  whitens.  When  well  purged,  the 
sugar  is  got  out  of  the  moulds  by  knocking  them  upside 
down  on  a  clean  floor.  The  loaf  of  sugar  will  be  found 
of  three  grades — white  at  the  top,  yellow  in  the  middle, 
and  brown  towards  the  bottom,  whilst  the  tip  or  extreme 
end  remains  a  "  magma  "  of  sugar  and  molasses. 


DRYING-BOXTNG-SHIPPING  TO  MARKET. 

As  the  moulds  are  knocked  out,  the  different  grades  of 
sugar  are  separated,  by  breaking  the  loaves  across  by  a 
blow  with  a  machete,  which  is  the  instrument  of  all  work 
in  the  hands  of  the  negro ;  the  broken  loaves  of  sugar  are 
then  either  passed  between  rollers,  or  pounded  with  mal- 
lets, to  break  up  its  consistence.  After  which,  it  is  either 
spread  over  hot  tiles,  in  a  room  prepared  for  the  purpose, 
with  fires  underneath,  or  exposed,  on  boards,  to  the  rays 
of  the  sun.  Here  it  is  dried  to  powder,  and  afterward 
packed  in  oblong  boxes  of  rough  pine  board,  held 
together  by  strips  of  raw  hide ;  which  being  nailed  on 
the  box  when  moist,  contract  on  drying,  and  bind  the 


SUGAR   AND   SUGAR   MAKING. 


101 


box  together  in  the  firmest  manner.  These  are  what  are 
known  in  trade  as  "boxed"  or  "clayed"  sugars,  and  are 
much  sought  after  by  refiners. 


CATTLE  MILL. 

Besides  the  many  sugar  mills  which  are  driven 
by  steam  engines,  there  are  a  large  number  of  the 
original  vertical  cattle  mills,  with  wooden  frames,  still 
in  use,  in  situations  where  water  is  scarce,  or  the  crop 
does  not  justify  the  expense  of  steam  machinery.  One 
of  these  is  represented  at  Figure  12. 


A  B  C  are  the  vertical  iron  rollers,  and  E  the  spout  con- 
ducting the  juice  from  the  pan  to  the  canal  or  gutter 


102  THE   CHINESE   SUGAK  CANE. 

leading  to  the  juice  tank.  In  cattle  mills  this  gutter  is 
put  under  ground,  so  that  the  cattle  may  pass  over  it 
without  obstruction.  Attached  to  the  upper  part  of  the 
center  roller  may  be  seen  a  cast  iron  cross-head  with 
sockets,  into  which  wooden  bars  are  fitted,  to  which  are 
harnessed  the  oxen,  mules,  or  horses,  as  the  case  may  be. 
Large  mills  of  this  kind,. require  sixteen  oxen. 

The  frame  of  the  mill  being  of  wood,  it  necessarily 
gives  somewhat  to  the  extreme  strain  upon  it,  conse- 
quently the  canes  are  never  so  thoroughly  crushed  as 
with  the  iron  frame  mill,  but  the  juice,  though  less 
in  quantity,  is  invariably  better  in  quality.  The  reason 
for  this  is,  that  the  tissues  of  the  cane  not  being  so  com- 
pletely broken  up,  as  in  the  former  case,  less  of  the 
'albuminous  and  extractive  matter  is  obtained  in  the 
operation ;  the  juice  is  purer,  clarifies  easily,  and  makes 
very  bright  sugar,  commanding  an  advanced  price.  It 
is  a  question,  however,  whether  the  advance  in  price 
which  such  sugar  generally  commands,  makes  up  for  the 
loss  in  the  quantity  of  the  juice,  which  the  employment 
of  the  cattle  mill  necessarily  entails. 

SMALL  TWO  ROLLER  MILL. 

A  small  two  roller  vertical  mill,  suitable  for  farmers 
planting  one  or  two  acres  of  sorgho,  and  which  may  be  driv- 
en by  two  men,  or  one  horse  or  mule  is  shown  at  Figure 
13.  This  little  mill  is  fastened  securely  in  the  ground  by 
means  of  its  uprights,  which  renders  it  convenient  for 
farmers. 


SUGAR  AND  SUGAR  MAKING. 


103 


STEAM  TRAIN. 

Hitherto  I  have  only  treated  of  sugar  trains  which 
evaporate  over  the  naked  fire,  but  there  are  a  large  num- 
ber of  the  more  extensive  estates  where  steam  is  employ- 
ed throughout,  while  there  are  others  where  the  two 
systems  are  united.  I  shall  finish  my  remarks  on  sugar 
boiling,  therefore,  by  a  brief  notice  of  these  methods. 

I  have  observed,  with  others,  that  nearly  the  whole  of  the 
color  imparted  to  cane  juice  in  the  act  of  boiling  over  the 
naked  fire,  is  received  in  the  two  last  pans,  after  the  fluid 
has  become  comparatively  dense,  and  retaining  but  littlo 
water  to  carry  off  the  heat.  Steam  does  not  discolor  the 
sugar  nearly  so  much  as  fire,  therefore  steam  trains  have 
been  extensively  adopted,  and  great  expense  has  fre- 
quently been  incurred  in  altering  the  arrangement  of  the 


104  THE   CHINESE   SUGAR  CANE. 

boiling-house  to  suit  the  new  regime.  A  steam  train  will 
cost  twice  as  much  to  run  and  keep  in  order  as  a  com- 
mon train  will,  to  say  nothing  of  first  expense ;  therefore, 
to  make  use  of  only  so  much  of  the  steam  train  as  is 
absolutely  necessary  to  effect  the  end  required  must  be 
an  object. 

Cane  juice,  containing  the  large  proportion  of  water 
which  it  does,  until  it  is  evaporated  to  30°  or  32°  of 
Beaume's  saccharometer,  remains  so  lively  and  changes 
its  position  so  readily  in  the  pan,  in  the  act  of  boiling 


over  the  naked  fire,  that  no  danger  of  discoloration  need 
be  feared,  till  it  reaches  the  stage  referred  to  ;  here,  how- 
ever, it  should  be  changed  to  the  steam  pans  and 
finished. 

I  think  the  reasons  given  are  sufficient  for  retaining 
the  old  and  inexpensive  train,  for  the  purpose  of  evapo- 
rating the  juice  to  30°  B.,  after  which  the  process  may  be 
continued  in  suitable  pans  having  coils  of  copper  steam 
pipe  in  the  bottom,  as  represented  in  section  at  Figure  14 


SUGAR  AND  SUGAR  MAKING. 


105 


Or  "  McCracken's  Patent  Evaporator"  may  be  employed 
in  place  of  the  worm  or  coil.  These  evaporators  have 
the  property  of  boiling  with  immense  rapidity,  requiring 
comparatively  low  pressure  of  steam,  say  30  Ibs.  to  the 
square  inch,  thus  uniting  in  themselves  those  properties 
which  constitute  the  bes;  sugar  apparatus,  viz.,  great 
speed  with  low  temperature.  With  the  ordinary  coil,  75 
and  100  Ibs.  are  the  usual  figures.  This  system  is  shown 
at  Figure  15,  of  which  A  A  is  the  pan,  of  iron  or  copper ; 


B,  the  evaporator,  consisting  of  a  case,  or  cylinder,  full 
of  tubes,  into  which  the  steam  enters,  and  surrounds  the 
tubes ;  C  is  the  steam  pipe  from  the  boiler ;  D  the  condense 
water  pipe,  and  B  the  cock  where  the  sugar  is  discharged. 
By  means  of  this  system  the  pipes  are  surrounded  by  the 
steam,  instead  of  surrounding  or  containing  it,  as  in  the 
old  way  ;  and  s  >  the  juice  flows  into  those  pipes  both  at 
5* 


106  THE   CHINESE   SUGAR   CANE. 

top  and  bottom.  It  will  be  perceived  that  tlie  whole 
force  of  the  steam  is  applied  to  small  portions  or  columns 
of  liquor  at  a  time  ;  thus  an  immediate  evaporation  takes 
place  almost  as  soon  as  the  steam  enters  the  tube  cylin- 
der, while  all  danger  of  overheating  is  avoided,  by  the 
well  known  tendency  of  liquids  to  rise  when  heated. 
A  current  sets  up  through  the  tubes,  the  cooler  portion 
entering  below,  heating  as  it  rises,  and  flowing  out  at  the 
top,  until,  when  the  whole  mass  gets  thoroughly  heated, 
the  juice  in  ebullition  takes  the  form  of  a  fountain,  and 
vaporization  goes  on  with  wonderful  rapidity.  This  pan 
is  fast  coming  into  favor,  and  that  it  will  ultimately  su- 
persede all  other  methods  of  open  evaporation  by  steam, 
is  the  opinion  of  planters  who  have  it  in  use. 


BOILING  IN  VACUO. 

.  Besides  the  preceding,  there  is  yet  another  method  of 
evaporating,  the  apparatus  for  which  is  more  complicated 
and  expensive  than  either  of  the  others  ;  this  is  boiling 
"in  vacuo,"  and  was  invented  by  Lord  Howard,  a  scien- 
tific Englishman,  many  years  ago.  So  complete  was  the 
apparatus  he  adopted,  that,  with  a  few  minor  additions, 
his  pan  remains  in  principle  unaltered  to  this  day. 

The  principle  involved  in  the  vacuum  pan  is  that  by 
which  watery  liquids  may  be  made  to  vaporize  in  a 
vacuum  at  a  much  lower  temperature  than  in  the  open 
air.  Thus,  water  boils  in  the  open  air  at  212°,  while  in 
vacuo  the  same  takes  place  at  90°.  Advantage  is  taken 
of  this  in  sugar  boiling  to  extract  the  water  from  solutions 
of  sugar  at  a  low  temperature,  and  so  preserve  its  color. 


SUGAK  AND  SUGAR  MAKING. 


107 


The  vacuum  pan  is  merely  a  closed  metallic  vessel,  hav- 
ing a  coil  of  steam  pipe  in  the  bottom,  and  a  condenser 
to  condense  the  steam  as  fast  as  it  rises,  while  an  air- 
pump  removes  the  atmospheric  pressure  and  water  of 
condensation.  This  pan  is  shown  in  elevation  at  Fig. 
16,  of  which  A  is  the  pan ;  B,  the  belt ;  C,  the  cover,  or 
K 


dome  ;  D,  the  cap  and  collar  ;  E,  the  condenser,  to  which 
a  cold  water  pipe  is  attached  at  K,  while  the  condenser 
discharges  at  L,  connecting  by  another  pipe  with  the  air 
pump,  which  is  worked  by  water  power  or  steam  engine. 
F  is  the  discharge  valve,  or  gate ;  G,  a  barometer,  to 
show  the  extent  of  the  vacuum,  and  a  thermometer  to 
indicate  the  heat  of  the  pan  :  H  is  an  eye  glass,  anoth  r 
being  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  dome,  for  the  purpose 
of  observing  the  ebullition  of  the  "  charge ;  "  I  is  a  small 
cup-faucet,  or  grease-cock,  to  introduce  a  little  oil  when 


108  THE   CHINESE   SUGAR  CAXE. 

it  is  required  to  check  the  froth  in  the  pan,  serving  also 
to  admit  air  when  the  sugar  is  ready  to  be  discharged; 
J  is  the  proof-stick,  by  which  a  small  quantity  of  sugar 
may  be  withdrawn  from  the  pan  at  pleasure,  so  that  the 
operator  may  know,  from  time  to  time,  how  the  charge  is 
progressing. 

The  method  of  operating  with  the  vacuum  pan  to  best 
advantage  on  a  sugar  estate,  is  to  boil  the  sugar  as  I 
have  before  advised  in  the  old  train,  till  it  reaches  a 
density  of  30°  or  32°  Beauine*,  after  which,  introduce 
and  boil  in  vacuo  to  the  crystallizing  point.  It 
would  be  too  tedious,  as  well  as  too  expensive,  to  boil 
down  raw  cane  juice  in  this  way.  Eellieux,  however, 
by  means  of  three  closed  pans,  operates  on  the  raw  juice 
in  this  way;  with  what  economy  I  cannot  say,  never 
having  examined  the  process  thoroughly.  His  train  is 
very  costly,  of  course. 

Unlike  boiling  in  the  open  air,  owing  to  its  low  tem- 
perature, granulation,  to  a  considerable  extent,  takes 
place  in  the  vacuum  pan,  if  the  operation  be  properly 
conducted,  and  the  vacuum  well  preserved,  to  do  which, 
like  everything  else,  requires  practice  in  the  operator. 
The  sugar,  when  discharged,  instead  of  resembling  thick 
syrup,  as  it  would  if  boiled  in  the  open  pan,  resembles 
thin  mortar,  being  full  of  grain,  and  requiring  but  a 
slight  decrease  of  temperature  to  become  solid. 

THE  FRENCH  BASCULE  PAN. 

At  figure  17,  I  give  a  representation  of  the  old  French 
Bascule  pan,  which  was  superseded  by  Howard's  process. 


SUGAR   AXD   SUGAR  MAKING.  109 

For  the  purpose  of  evaporating  sorgho  j  nice,  on  a  limited 


Kg.  /r. 

scale,  I  think  it  would  do  good  service ;  the  fire  only 
strikes  the  bottom,  and  the  syrup,  or  sugar,  is  discharged 
at  a  moment's  notice.  I  should  recommend  it  to  such 
farmers  as  do  not  intend  putting  up  a  full  train. 

BAG  FILTERS. 

Where  white  pure  sugar  is  wanted  direct  from  the  cane, 
a  refining  process  is  required,  similar  to  that  employed  in 
refineries  in  the  city.  The  cane  juice,  after  defecation  and 
clarification,  at  a  density  of  12°  or  13°  B.  or  even  as 
high  as  24°  or  25°  B.,  is  run  through  bag  filters,  which  are 
made  of  a  peculiar  kind  of  cotton  duck ;  they  consist, 
simply,  of  a  large  bag,  usually  a  yard  wide,  and  five  or 
six  feet  long.  This  is  gathered  together  closely,  and 
drawn  through  a  sheath  of  the  same  length,  (like  a  cut 
of  leather  hose  pipe,  only  made  of  porous  flax  bagging,) 


110  THE   CHINESE   SUGAR  CANE. 

the  open  end  of  the  cotton  bag  being  all  "  puckered  up," 
is  tied  on  to  a  brass  tube,  which,  being  fitted  with  a 
screw,  is  screwed  into  a  small  shallow  cast  iron  or 
wooden  tank,  large  enough  to  contain  twenty-five  to 
fifty  of  these  brass  tubes ;  the  tank,  besides  serving  to 
hang  the  filters,  (which  hang  like  so  many  sausages,) 
serves  to  contain  the  syrup  which  is  to  pass  through  the 
tubes  into  the  bags,  through  which  it  percolates,  and 
emerges  clear  and  bright,  free  from  feculencies  and  ex- 
traneous matters,  and  ready  for  the  carbon  filters. 


BONE  BLACK  FILTERS. 

These  latter  are  large  square  or  circular  sheet  iron 
tanks,  which  should  be  at  least  five  feet  in  diameter,  and 
six  or  eight  feet  deep.  These  have  a  false  bottom  per- 
forated with  holes ;  over  this  a  blanket  is  laid,  and  the 
tank  filled  up  evenly  with  animal  charcoal  or  bone  black. 
A  small  air-tube  generally  runs  from  beneath  the  false 
bottom  to  the  top.  Over  the  top  of  the  bone  black  the 
bag-filtered  liquor  is  permitted  to  flow,  which  soon  filters 
down  through  the  false  bottom ;  the  cock  of  the  filter  is 
then  opened,  and  the  first  running  kept  apart,  being 
black  and  smutty  from  the  small  particles  of  charcoal 
dust  which  it  contains.  This  is  thrown  on  again  at  the 
top  to  be  refiltered.  The  stream,  however,  soon  runs 
clear,  and,  according  to  the  length  of  time  the  syrup  is 
left  in  contact  with  the  bone  black,  does  the  decoloriza- 
tion  sought  for  take  place.  If  the  stream  be  kept  small 
the  liquor  may  be  drawn  off  colorless  a?  ™  ater,  and  so 


SUGAR  AND   SUGAR  MAKING.  Ill 

darker,  in  proportion  to  the  speed  with  which  it  is  run 
off. 

Filtering  in  this  way  is  a  very  expensive  process  even 
in  large  cities  where  labor  is  cheap,  the  bone  black  requir- 
ing to  be  reburned  as  soon  as  it  has  filtered  three  times 
its  own  weight  of  sugar.  I  would  not,  therefore,  advise 
the  use  of  filters  on  a  sugar  estate  or  farm ;  the  true 
policy  of  which  ought  to  be  to  make  good  Muscovado, 
and  leave  refining  to  the  cities,  where  all  the  facilities 
exist  for  doing  it  to  advantage,  and  with  an  economy 
which  the  planter  or  farmer  may  seek  in  vain  to  imitate. 
The  syrup,  after  passing  through  the  filters,  is  ready  for 
the  vacuum  pan. 

In  the  preceding  remarks  on  the  various  apparatus  for, 
and  processes  of,  manufacturing  .sugar,  I  have  not  at- 
tempted clothing  my  subject  with  any  of  the  elegances 
of  language,  but  more  to  convey  in  as  simple  a  manner 
as  possible  the  information  required,  in  the  hope  that  it 
might  assist  in  developing  a  new  branch  of  industry  in 
the  community,  and  so  add  to  the  wealth  and  prosperity 
of  the  country  at  large. 

GROUND  PLAN  FOR  SUGAR  ESTATE  BUILDINGS. 

The  following  cut  represents  the  ground-plan  of  build- 
ings for  a  sugar  estate,  with  the  engine  house,  boiling 
house,  cooling  and  purging  house,  arranged  on  a  combi- 
nation of  the  best  features,  gathered  from  various  sugar 
estates  of  Louisiana  and  Cuba ; 

As  will  be  seen  in  the  cut,  the  engine  house,  boiling 
house,  and  cooling  and  purging  house,  are  all  built  sepa- 


112 


THE   CHINESE   SUGAR  CANE. 


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SUGAR  AND  SUGAR  MAKING.  113 

rate,  with,  a  space  between  each ;  the  gable  walls  of  these 
buildings  ought  to  have  no  windows,  and  the  doors  com- 
municating should  be  of  iron,  so  that  in  case  any  one  of 
the  buildings  caught  fire,  the  conflagration  would  be  con- 
fined to  the  place  where  it  originated,  and  thus  the  valu- 
able stock  or  machinery  in  the  other  buildings  be  saved. 


CHEAP  AND  SDIPLE  PROCESS  FOR  MAKING  SUGAR,  OR  SYRUP  ON  A 
SMALL  SCALE. 

For  the  benefit  of  a  large  class  whose  facilities  or  incli- 
nations have  this  year  induced  them  only  to  plant  a 
small  patch  of  Chinese  Sugar  Cane,  by  way  of  experi- 
ment, yet  who,  nevertheless,  are  desirous  of  making  a 
trial  of  syrup  or  sugar  making  on  their  own  account, 
without  waiting  for  the  voluminous  reports  which  will 
be  forthcoming  at  the  end  of  the  season,  I  subjoin  the 
following  description  of  a  process  by  which,  at  a  trifling 
expense,  both  syrup  and  sugar  may  be  manufactured  in 
a  small  way  for  family  use,  by  any  farmer  or  householder 
who  has  but  a  few  canes  growing  in  his  garden,  and 
which  may  be  applied  to  any  operation  on  from  five  to 
twenty-five  gallons  of  juice. 

Of  course,  the  first  thing  is  to  permit  the  sorgho  to 
fully  ripen,  as  in  that  condition  it  makes  the  best  syrup, 
and  will  be  free  from  the  grassy  flavor  complained  of  in 
previous  experiments.  This,  as  has  been  previously 
said,  is  known  by  the  seeds  becoming  black  and  hard. 
When  fully  ripe,  then,  with  a  corn-cutter,  a  large  carving 
knife,  or,  what  is  better,  a  small  hatchet,  cut  the  canes  off 
close  to  the  roots,  strip  off  their  leaves  as  far  as  the  joints 


114  THE   CHINESE   SUGAR  CANE. 

extend,  and  chop  off  the  rest  of  the  stalk,  saving  the 
seeds  for  future  planting,  if  the  cane  proves  to  be  of  good 
quality  ;  if  not,  give  them  to  the  chickens. 

The  next  thing  is  to  extract  the  juice  from  the  stalks 
or  canes.  This  must  be  done  by  pressing  them  between 
rollers.  If  there  is  a  cider  mill  on  the  premises,  it  will 
be  all-sufficient;  pass  tKem  through  it  just  as  you  would 
crush  apples,  catching  the  juice  in  some  clean  vessel  with 
as  few  chips  or  dirt  in  it  as  possible. 


A  VERY  CHEAP  MILL. 

If  there  be  no  cider  mill  in  the  neighborhood,  you 
must  make  a  shift  to  construct  one  yourself,  or  get  the 
nearest  carpenter  to  do  so  ;  nothing  but  wood  being  re- 
quired for  all  you  have  to  do.  The  way  to  go  about  it 
is  as  follows :  Choose  some  straight  pieces  of  maple,  or 
any  hard  wood,  twelve  or  fourteen  inches  across,  and 
saw  one  piece  off  thirty  inches  long,  and  the  other  forty- 
eight  inches.  These  are  to  make  your  two  rollers,  and 
as  nearly  round  as  you  can  get  the  log,  so  much  less 
trouble  will  there  be  to  fashion  the  work.  Having  got 
your  wood,  take  the  blocks  to  the  nearest  carpenter,  and 
tell  him  to  make  you  two  journals  on  the  ends  of  the 
shortest  piece,  two  and  a  half  inches  less  in  diameter  than 
the  block  will  be  \?hen  made  perfectly  round.  If  he  has 
a  turning  lathe  he  will  be  able  to  do  it  all  in  a  couple  of 
hours.  Let  him  make  the  axles  or  journals  seven  inches 
long  each.  You  have  now  one  roller  finished ;  the  other 
is  like  it,  only  after  making  a  journal  on  one  end,  he 
measures  along  the  same  length  as  the  other  roller,  which 


SUGAR  AND   SUGAR   MAKING.  115 

will  be  sixteen  inches,  and  then  cuts  into  the  block 
another  journal  like  the  others,  leaving  beyond  it 
eighteen  inches  of  sound  wood  to  spare,  of  the  same  girth 
or  diameter  as  the  roller  part.  Through  this  eighteen 
inches  that  you  have  left  over,  cut  a  square  hole  or 
socket,  large  enough  to  put  a  good  stiff  wooden  lever  in 
or  through  it,  so  that  when  your  rollers  are  set  up  on  end 
in  a  frame,  like  a  windlass,  you  can  walk  round  with  the 
lever,  and  so  turn  the  mill.  If  there  is  a  blacksmith  in 
the  neighborhood,  it  would  be  well  to  get  him  to  put 
an  iron  hoop  above  and  below  the  lever  hole  or  socket, 
to  prevent  the  strain,  which  will  be  considerable,  from 
splitting  the  top.  You  have  now  the  rollers  complete  ; 
the  next  step  is  to  make  the  frame  that  holds  them 
together.  Take  two  pieces  of  timber,  nine  feet  long  and 
nine  inches  square,  if  you  have  them  ;  if  not,  round, 
barked  timber  will  do  ;  dig  two  holes  in  the  ground  six 
feet  deep  and  four  feet  apart  wherever  you  wish  your 
mill  to  stand.  Put  the  posts  into  them,  and  fill  the  earth 
in  again,  beating  it  down  so  as  to  hold  these  uprights  as 
stiff  and  immovable  as  possible.  These  are  the  supports 
of  your  mill,  and  have  to  bear  all  the  strain,  so  you  must 
see  that  they  are  strong  and  firm.  Now,  get  a  slab  of 
wood,  six  feet  long,  sixteen  inches  broad,  and  eight 
inches  thick,  set  your  two  rollers  on  it,  standing  upright, 
and  close  together ;  mark  the  two  holes  for  the  lower 
journals,  and  cut  them  out  six  inches  deep.  You  must 
now  cut  a  couple  of  notches  at  the  ends  of  the  slab,  fit 
these  notches  between  the  two  posts,  and  pin  them  tight. 
Now  you  have .  the  bed  plate  of  your  mill.  Set  the 
rollers  upright  on  it,  with  the  journals  in  the  holes  you 


116  THE   CHINESE   SUGAR  CANE. 

have  cut  for  them,  and  proceed  to  fit  the  upper  frame 
plate  in  the  same  way,  except  that  it  must  be  made  in 
two  halves,  owing  to  the  socket  part  where  the  lever 
goes  preventing  your  slipping  it  over  both  journals,  as 
was  done  in  the  other  case.  For  the  upper  frame  plate, 
taking  two  pieces,  six  feet  long,  nine  inches  broad,  and 
seven  inches  thick,  fit  them  nicely  together  round  the 
journals,  and  fix  as  before.  To  keep  the  two  pieces  from 
spreading  when  the  strain  comes,  either  clamp  them  to- 
gether with  wooden  clamps  and  wedges,  or  hold  them 
together  with  a  dovetail  tie.  The  mill  is  now  complete ; 
put  in  the  lever,  and  you  are  ready  to  crush  the  canes. 
Cut  a  small  gutter  round  the  roller  in  the  wood  of  the 
bed  plate,  leading  to  a  spout,  to  prevent  the  juice  from 
running  all  round  and  being  lost.  The  above  need  not 
cost  a  farmer  ten  dollars  where  wood  is  plenty,  is  suf- 
ficiently strong,  and  will  crush  a  hundred  gallons  of  juice 
per  day,  if  required. 

Of  course,  it  will  be  understood  that  a  mill  like  that 
described  above,  is  merely  a  make-shift  for  experiment- 
ing with,  for  you  could  only  get  one  half  the  juice  by  it, 
that  an  iron  one  of  the  same  construction  would  yield. 
Another  mill,  of  simple  construction,  is  figured  on  the 
following  page,  and  is  the  one  used  by  Colonel  Peters  in 
his  syrup  making  experiments  of  last  season.  Instead 
of  being  made  of  wood,  the  rollers  are  cast  iron. 

CRUSHING  OUT  THE  JUICE. 

Having  brought  your  canes  to  the  mill,  and  adjusted 
your  lever,  either  let  a  man  walk  round  with  it,  or 
attach  a  horse  or  pony.  Pass  the  canes  through,  two  at 


SUGAR  AND  SUGAR  MAKING. 


117 


a  time,  till  you  have  suffic'ent  juice  for  a  boiling,  say 
ten  gallons  or  fifteen  gallons ;  which  should  be  crushed 
out  in  half  an  hour.  Now  build  a  fire-place  with  stones, 
or  set  up  two  forked  poles,  and  put  another  across,  on 
which  sling  your  pot,  which  may  be  of  sheet  tin,  but  had 
better  be  of  cast  iron.  Let  it  hold,  say  ten  gallons.  Get 
a  small  tin  skimmer  at  a  tinsmith's  shop,  and  you  are 
prepared  to  commence  boiling. 


BOILING  AND  CLARIFYINa. 

Everything  being  ready,  slack  a  teacup  full  of  lime, 
mix  it  to  the  consistency  of  cream,  and  set  it  by  for  use. 
Light  your  fire,  with  charcoal  if  you  have  it,  for  it  makes 


118  THE   CHINESE   SUGAR  CANE. 

no  smoke,  but  if  you  have  none,  use  dry  kindling  wood. 
If  possible,  so  arrange  your  rude  fire-place  as  to  let  the 
fire  reach  no  more  than  half  way  up  the  sides  of  the 
pot.  Put  five  or  six  gallons  of  juice  into  the  pot,  set  it 
on  the  fire,  and  when  it  becomes  milk  warm,  add  one 
large  tablespoonful  of  the  cream  of  lime,  and  mix  it 
thoroughly  through  the  juice.  Now  take  the  whites  of 
two  fresh  eggs,  beat  them  up  with  a  teacupful  of  the 
juice  from  the  pot,  and  when  thoroughly  mixed,  pour 
back,  and  stir  them  well  through  the  mass,  bring  it  to 
the  boil  as  soon  as  possible,  but  the  moment  you  see  the 
first  signs  of  boiling,  lift  the  pot  off  the  fire;  set  it  on  the 
ground,  and  let  it  remain  quiet  for  fifteen  or  twenty 
minutes.  You  will  have  perceived  that  after  adding  the 
cream  of  lime  and  eggs,  as  the  simmering  went  on,  a 
thick  scum  began  to  rise ;  this  you  must  not  disturb,  but 
allow  to  gather  on  the  top,  till  you  take  the  pot  from  the 
fire  as  directed,  and  allow  it  to  settle  fifteen  or  twenty 
minutes.  At  the  end  of  this  time,  carefully  remove  the 
scum,  and  you  will  find  if  you  have  carefully  followed 
these  directions,  that  the  juice  has  become  clear  and 
bright,  ready  to  boil  down  to  the  consistence  you  require, 
whether  of  syrup  or  sugar.  Having  removed  the  scum, 
empty  the  contents  of  your  pot  into  some  clean  vessel, 
which  have  convenient.  Fill  up  your  pot  again  with  the 
raw  juice,  and  proceed  as  before.  This  is  the  process  of 
clarifying  or  defecating,  and  is  absolutely  necessary,  if 
you  do  not  wish  to  have  a  dark,  dirty  syrup,  tasting  of 
cane  stalks,  and  almost  unfit  for  use. 

After  clarifying  and  skimming  the  second  pot  full,  as 
directed,  set  it  back  on  the  fire,  and  boil  down  as  rapidly 


SUGAR  AND  SUGAR  MAKING.  119 

as  possible.  As  the  quantity  reduces  by  boiling,  keep 
adding  fresh  juice  from  the  first  clarification,  so  as  not  to 
let  the  syrup  get  too  low  in  the  pot,  or  it  will  get  burned. 
If  any  scum  rises,  remove  it  with  your  skimmer ;  and 
by  following  these  directions,  you  cannot  fail  to  make 
good  syrup. 

The  preceding  remarks  suppose  that  you  have  only  one 
pot  to  operate  with ;  but  it  is  very  much  better  to  have 
two,  as  it  will  save  twenty  minutes'  time,  and  fuel,  with 
each  kettle  of  syrup  you  make ;  because,  as  I  have  shown, 
you  have  to  wait  twenty  minutes  after  taking  the  pot  from 
the  fire,  to  allow  the  scum  to  rise  and  settle ;  so,  if  you 
have  not  another  pot  full  of  fresh  juice  to  put  on,  it  is 
so  much  time  and  fire  wasted.  With  two  pots  in  use, 
you  replace  the  first  on  the  fire  as  soon  as  you  take  the 
other  off,  and  proceed  to  boil  down. 


SYEUP  OP  EXTRA  QUALITY. 

Should  you  wish  to  make  a  very  extra  syrup  for  table 
use,  get  a  flannel  bag,  of  almost  any  shape,  sufficient  to 
hold  two  or  three  gallons,  and  filter  the  juice  through  it 
after  you  have  skimmed  it,  then  boil  down  as  before. 

HOW  TO  KNOW  WHEN  THE  JUICE  IS  BOILED  ENOUGH. 

It  is  a  matter  of  importance  with  those  who  have  never 
boiled  syrup  to  know  when  the  juice  is  boiled  enough. 
There  being  nothing  like  experiments,  I  would  advise 
such  to  procure  a  cup  full  of  molasses,  heat  it,  and  taking 
up  a  small  quantity  on  a  spoon,  to  watch  how  it  runs 


120  THE   CHINESE   SUGAR  CANE. 

down,  and  when  the  drops  come,  how  they  elongate  and 
break  in  the  middle,  the  upper  half  springing  back  with 
a  jerk,  and  the  lower  forming  a  ball  and  falling  into  the 
cup  again.  Three  cents  in  money,  and  the  expenditure 
of  five  minutes'  time  in  this  way,  will  go  farther  in  edu- 
cating the  eye  to  a  good  judgment,  than  an  elaborate 
series  of  directions. 

I  will  give  one  other  method,  however,  of  knowing 
when  syrup  is  cooked  enough.  Dip  your  skimmer  into 
the  boiling  liquid,  take  it  out  and  allow  the  syrup  to  run 
off  it ;  a  few  drops  will  remain  on  the  edge,  falling  at  in- 
tervals. If  these  break  with  a  long  string  between,  which 
at  the  break  jerks  back  to  the  dipper  again,  and  which 
when  taken  between  the  finger  and  thumb  feels  like 
molasses,  it  is  fair  to  suppose  your  syrup  is  sufficiently 
boiled,  and  you  may  take  it  from  the  fire. 

REDUCING  TO  SUGAR. 

For  making  sugar,  it  will  be  necessary  to  boil  this 
same  syrup  down  till  the  steam  escapes  from  it  in  little 
puffs,  and  when  the  skimmer  is  dipped  into  it,  the  fall- 
ing drops  break  short  and  fall  solid.  These  simple  tests, 
and  perhaps  a  few  failures,  will  enable  one  to  make  good 
sugar.  When  enough  has  been  boiled,  pour  it  into  a 
wooden  box  or  tub  to  cool  slowly,  standing  it  in  a  warm 
place.  Let  the  box  be  large  enough  to  allow  of  the 
sugar  standing  only  l£  inches  deep;  boil  another  lot, 
and  pour  over  the  top  of  the  first,  and  a  third  over  the 
top  of  the  second,  mix  them  all  together,  and  allow  the 
contents  to  cool.  If,  by  the  next  morning,  there  should 


SUGAR  AND   SUGAR  MAKING.  121 

be  no  signs  of  crystals,  take  a  handful  of  raw  sugar  and 
stir  it  in ;  in  all  probability  it  will  start  crystallization ; 
but  if  it  should  not  do  so  immediately,  do  not  despair,  for 
it  may  stand  for  an  entire  fortnight,  and  then  suddenly 
strike  into  sugar. 

The  above  simple  and  valuable  directions  have  been 
kindly  furnished  for  this  work  by  an  experienced  sugar 
boiler,  and  will  recommend  themselves  to  those  who  de- 
sire to  experiment  in  sugar  making  on  a  limited  scale. 

To  give  my  readers  some  idea  of  the  amount  of  capital 
requisite  to  carry  on  the  operations  of  a  large  sugar  plan- 
tation in  the  State  of  Louisiana,  I  will,  in  concluding  this 
chapter,  append  the  following  extract  from  a  valuable 
article,  written  by  rny  friend,  Colonel  T.  B.  Thorpe,  for 
the  November,  (1853,)  number  of  Harper's  Magazine : 


REFINERY  AND  PLANTATION   OF  ST.  JAMES. 

"  The  tract  of  land  connected  with  this  estate,  contains 
nine  thousand  acres,  one  thousand  five  hundred  of  which 
are  under  cultivation,  and  divided  as  follows :  eight 
hundred  acres  in  cane;  two  hundred  and  ninety -four 
acres  in  corn  ;  one  hundred  and  fifty  acres  cultivated  by 
the  negroes  for  their  own  use ;  ten  acres  in  olives ;  the 
remainder  of  the  fifteen  hundred  acres  alluded  to  as  un- 
der cultivation,  is  taken  up  by  potatoes,  building  lots, 
pasturage,  and  gardens :  remainder  of  the  nine  thousand 
acres  is  in  forest,  from  which  is  taken  the  fuel  consumed 
in  manufacturing  and  refining,  and  the  timber  for  the 
casks  used  in  packing  the  sugar  for  market. 

"The  buildings  consist  of  the  proprietor's  dwelling 
6 


122  THE   CHINESE   SUGAR  CANE. 

amd  out-houses ;  twenty-four  negro  houses,  with  veran- 
dahs in  front,  each  cabin  is  forty  feet  square,  and  con- 
tains four  rooms,  and  has  a  garden  and  fowl  house 
attached ;  a  hospital  sixty-four  feet  square,  containing 
seven  rooms,  and  an  immense  verandah  ;  a  nursery  fifty 
feet  square,  store-houses,  overseer's  or  manager's  house, 
stables  containing  one  hundred  stalls,  two  wood  houses, 
each  four  hundred  feet  long  by  one  hundred  wide ;  one 
sugar  house  five  hundred  and  seventy  feet  long,  by 
seventy-five  feet  wide,  thirty-four  feet  high  between  the 
floor  and  ceiling;  and  a  '  double  saw  mill.' 

"The  machinery  consists  of  steam  saw  mills  and 
pumping  engine  at  the  river  for  supplying  the  sugar 
house  with  water,  steam  engine  of  eighty  horse  power, 
and  sugar  mill  for  grinding  cane ;  engines,  vacuum  pans, 
and  a  complete  apparatus  for  making  and  refining 
twenty -five  thousand  pounds  of  sugar  every  twenty-four 
hours  direct  from  the  cane  juice,  and  doing  this  entirely 
by  steam. 

"The  stock  upon  the  plantation  consists  of  sixty-four 
mules,  twelve  horses,  sixteen  oxen,  one  hundred  and 
forty-five  sheep,  eighty  head  of  cows  and  'beeves,'  two 
hundred  and  fifteen  slaves — among  winch  are  one  hun- 
dred and  seven  field  hands,  two  coopers,  one  blacksmith, 
two  engineers,  four  carpenters,  twenty  house  servants, 
four  nurses,  eleven  old  men  and  women  that  attend  to 
the  stables,  and  sixty -four  children  under  five  years  of  age. 

"The  cash  expenses  of  this  estate  are  twenty  .thousand 
dollars  annually,  paid  to  managers,  sugar-makers,  en- 
gineers, and  for  food  and  clothing  for  the  negroes,  and 
repairs  of  machinery  and  buildings.  The  weekly  rations 


SUGAR  AND   SUGAR  MAKING.  123 

of  each  negro  are  five  and  a  half  pounds  of  mess-pork, 
best  quality,  with  as  much  meal  and  potatoes  as  they 
choose  to  take — in  addition  to  which  every  one  has  his 
pigs  and  his  poultry ;  for  all  adults  have  not  only  the 
chicken-yard,  but  also  their  garden,  which  they  are 
obliged  to  cultivate  for  their  own  benefit — the  surplus 
of  vegetables  and  poultry  being  purchased  by  their 
master,  and  paid  for  in  gold  and  silver,  and  amounted, 
in  the  year  just  past,  to  one  thousand  five  hundred  and 
sixty  dollars — this  sum  not  including  the  money  ob- 
tained by  sales  of  poultry,  pigs,  eggs,  and  fruits,  to 
chance  customers.  In  addition  still,  the  negroes  annu- 
ally receive  two  suits  of  clothes,  two  pairs  of  shoes,  a 
blanket,  and  hat. 

"  The  value  of  the  estate  of  St.  James,  and  of  its  pro- 
ductions for  the  year  1852,  are  as  follows : 

VALUE  OF  THE  ESTATE. 

Land,  9,000  acres,  at  $40,      -        -        -  $360,000 

Buildings,  100,000 

Machinery, 60,000 

Slaves, 170,000 

Stock, 11,000 


Total,     -  -    $701,000 


PRODUCTIONS  OP  THE  ESTATE  IN  1852. 

Sugar,  1,300,000  Ibs.,  at  6  cts.,  -        -    $78,000 
Syrup,  60,000  gallons,  at  36  cts.,     -          21,600 

99,600 


124  THE   CHINESE   SUGAR  CANE. 

Brought  forward,       -         -    $99,600 
Corn,  9000  barrels  for  consumption  on  the  es- 
tate; wood:  3000  cords  for  the  engine  house. 
Estimated  value  ....       14,400 


Total  products  of  the  estate,  -  $114,000 
"  This  plantation  shows  the  average  production  of  the 
best  class  of  sugar  estates  in  Louisiana,  the  largest  of 
which,  in  1852,  yielded  a  revenue  of  one  hundred  and 
fifty-two  thousand  and  fifty  dollars;  but  these  estates 
increase  the  value  of  their  products  by  the  aid  of  costly 
machinery,  not  used  on  the  ordinary  plantations." 

This  article  being  written  four  years  ago,  does  not,  of 
course,  give  a  true  idea  of  the  profits  of  the  same  estate 
the  present  season  ;  for,  whereas  the  running  expenses  of 
the  estate  are  about  equal  to  the  above,  the  prices  of  sugar 
and  syrup  have  greatly  increased,  and  the  gross  receipts 
must  be  by  so  much  the  same  augmented. 

THE  NEW  SUGAR  MILL  OE  MESSES.  HEDGES,  TREE,  &  CO. 

Messrs.  Hedges,  Free,  &  Co.r  of  Cincinnati  and  Phila- 
delphia, who  so  kindly  forwarded  to  me  the  pamphlets 
received  by  their  house  from  the  Honorable  John  Y. 
Mason,  and  which  have  proved  so  extremely  valuable  to 
the  elaboration  of  this  work,  have  recently  invented  a 
three  roller  vertical  mill  for  expressing  the  juice  of  the 
sorgho  and  imphee,  and  in  reply  to  a  request  to  furnish 
cuts  to  illustrate  this  work,  I  received  the  following : 


SUGAR  AND  SUGAR  MAKING.  125 

"  PHILADELPHIA,  August  14th,  1857. 
H.  S.  OLCOTT, 

DEAR  SIR, — In  reply  to  your  inquiries  as  regards  our 
mills,  boilers,  &c.,  for  the  purpose  of  expressing  and  con- 
centrating the  juice  of  the  Chinese  and  African  Sugar 
Canes,  we  take  pleasure  in  saying  that  the  cut  we  send 
you  represents  our  vertical  three-roller  horse-power  mill, 
that  has  met  with  very  ready  sale  here,  and  at  Cincin- 
nati, Ohio.  They  are  so  simple  of  construction  that  they 
can  be  set  up  in  a  single  day  by  two  hands,  and  are  pro-, 
vided  with  a  convenient  arrangement  for  feeding,  so  as  to 
spread  the  cane  over  the  whole  length  of  the  roller 
equally,  causing  it  to  pass  through  in  a  direct  horizontal 
line — a  desideratum  never  before  attained,  but  very  es- 
sential to  horse-power  mills.  As  we  construct  our  mills 
with  iron  frame  work  entirely,  we  have  not  only  strong 
ones,  but  durable,  and  free  from  the  bad  effects  that  must 
result  where  the  juice  comes  in  contact  with  woodwork. 
We  have  mills  differing  in  capacity,  of  the  same  general 
construction,  but  greater  length  of  roller.  For  steam- 
power  we  furnish  mills,  with  horizontal  rollers,  arranged 
upon  the  approved  plans  of  such  mills. 

"  Our  mills  vary  in  prices  from  $100  to  $500. 

"  We  are  prepared  to  furnish  pans,  clarifiers,  niters, 
ladles,  skimmers,  and  all  other  apparatus  and  fixtures, 
with  diagrams  and  instructions  complete. 

"  Those  west  of  the  mountains  order  from  us  at  Cin- . 
nati,  Ohio  ;  those  east,  from  this  city. 

"HEDGES,  FEEE,  &  CO., 
"  Office,  No.  633  Market  Street,  Philadelphia." 


126 


THE   CHINESE   SUGAR  CANE. 


SUGAR  AND  SUGAR  MAKING. 


127 


For  the  more  extensive  operations  of  planters,  Mr. 
Hedges  has  constructed  a  more  powerful  mill,  a  repre- 
sentation of  which  is  given  herewith. 


HORIZONTAL  THREE  ROLLER 

SUGAR  MILL  FOR  PRESSING 

CHINESE  CANE. 


MACHINE  FOR  STRIPPING  THE  SEED. 

The  following  plan  for  a  seed-stripping  machine,  offered 
by  Mr.  Hedges,  is  doubtless  a  close  approximation  to 
what  is  needed : 

"  For  cleaning  the  seed,  we  would  recommend  the  use 
of  a  cylindrical  hatchel,  or  hackel,  (often  used  for  broom 
corn,)  made  of  staves  turned  upon  wooden  heads,  about 
two  feet  diameter,  and  of  a  length  to  suit  the  amount  to  be 
done  and  power  to  drive  it.  For  teeth,  use  large  wrought 
spikes,  set  through  the  staves  before  putting  on  the 
bands.  These  teeth  may  be  about  three  inches  apart, 
and  so  distributed  as  to  cover  the  whole  surface  in  re- 


128  THE  CHINESE  SUGAR  CANE. 

volvmg ;  cast-iron  flange,  with  stem  for  journal  and 
crank,  bolted  on  the  heads ;  finish  cylinder — one  four 
feet  long  would,  if  turned  by  two  hands,  clean  fifty  to 
seventy -five  bushels  per  day.  A  plank  breastwork  should 
be  set  up  for  the  cleaners  to  rest  their  hands  on  while 
grasping  as  much  as  convenient  to  hold,  and  the  cylinder 
rolling  over  from  them  will  strip  off  rapidly  all  the  seed. 
This  should  be  done  before  the  boiling  is  commenced,  so 
that  the  seed  can  be  mixed  into  the  hot  scum  taken  from 
the  clarifier  and  kettles,  which  combined,  will  fatten  hogs 
or  cattle,  beyond  doubt,  more  rapidly  than  any  other  feed 
known.  The  starch  in  the  seed,  added  to  the  sugar  in 
the  scum,  must  constitute  capital  food.  Should  there 
prove  to  be  a  surplus,  it  may  be  preserved  for  a  consider- 
able time  in  cisterns  well  cemented  and  deep,  where  fer- 
mentation will  be  slow ;  but  the  mass  must  be  allowed  to 
get  cool  before  being  put  in.  Such  cisterns  will  become 
useful  for  storing  the  syrup,  should  it  prove  profitable  as 
an  alcohol  crop,  as  they  would  be  cheap  and  safe  reposi- 
tories for  it  until  the  season  and  market  demanded  it, 
when  it  could  be  raised  by  pump,  and  with  one  set  of 
casks,  hauled  away  and  emptied,  returned,  and  refilled, 
thereby  saving  much  expense  for  casks.  In  this  manner 
I  learn  syrups  are  often  kept  in  the  large  sugar  districts 
of  the  West  Indies." 


CHAPTEE    VI. 

SYEUP. 


BEST  METHODS  OF  MAKING  IT-EXPERIENCE  OP  AMERICAN  GROWERS. 

WHILST  contending  chemists  have  alternately  sung 
the  praises  of,  and  decried  against,  the  sorgho  as  a  sugar 
producing  plant,  and  opulent  sugar  refiners  have  trem- 
bled at  the  threatened  invasion  of  their  accustomed  mo- 
nopolies, all  have  united  in  the  opinion  that  it  is  indeed 
a  plant  capable  of  affording  an  abundant  and  excellent 
crop  of  syrup. 

The  American  public  received  a  most  unexpected  and 
agreeable  surprise  in  the  month  of  October  last,  by  the 
publication  of  a  circular  from  Colonel  Eichard  Peters,  of 
Atlanta,  Georgia,  which  gave  the  remarkable  results  he 
had  obtained  in  making  syrup  from  the  juice  of  the 
sorgho.  So  complete,  so  triumphant  was  his  success,  and 
so  full  was  it  of  magnificent  promise  for  the  future,  that 
with  one  accord  it  was  caught  up  from  press  to  press  and 
scattered  to  every  quarter  of  the  Union.  The  papers  of 
Maine  and  Texas,  of  Maryland  and  Utah,  discussed  its 
probable  importance,  and  with  but  little  delay  Mr.  Peters 
became  one  of  the  most  widely  known  men  of  the  country. 
The  result  was,  that  from  that  day  to  this,  he  is  in  the 
receipt  of  a  vast  number  of  letters  of  inquiry,  and  in  self- 
defence  was  obliged  to  issue  a  pamphlet  of  directions  for 

[129] 


130  THE   CHINESE   SUGAR   CANE. 

the  cultivation  of  the  plant  and  manufacture  of  its  syrup 
He  has,  beside?  this,  he  informs  me,  written  a  thousand 
or  more  letters  of  reply.  Samples  of  his  sorgho  syrup 
were  given  to  him  by  a  number  of  persons  in  all  sections 
of  the  country ;  and  amongst  others,  a  keg  of  it  was 
kindly  sent  to  myself. 

The  success  of  Mr.  Peters  being  made  known  early  in 
the  season,  induced  many  farmers  in  the  northern  and 
north-western  states,  who  had  small  patches  under  culti- 
vation, to  endeavor  to  make  a  little  syrup  themselves ; 
and  in  no  case,  so  far  as  I  have  seen  reported  in  the 
public  papers,  was  the  attempt  unsuccessful.  By  per- 
sonal correspondence,  I  know  of  syrup  having  been  made 
in  thirteen  states  and  territories.  And  I  doubt  not  that 
Mr.  D.  Jay  Browne,  and  Colonel  Peters,  could  add  con- 
siderably to  the  list. 

As  might  have  been  expected,  when  we  consider  the 
rude  method  employed  in  expressing  the  juice  and 
boiling  it,  the  syrups  in  some  cases  were  of  questionable 
excellence;  but  where  more  care  was  taken,  the  most 
gratifying  results  were  attained.  Colonel  Peters'  syrup 
was  boiled  in  a  common  iron  "  cow-pot,"  and  from  inex- 
perience or  carelessness  of  the  hands  employed  in  the 
operation,  it  was  not  only  suffered  to  become  scorched, 
but  it  was  not  properly  neutralized  with  alkalies,  and 
kept  from  exposure  to  the  air.  Another  reason  for  its 
imperfect  quality  was,  that  the  barrel  from  which  the 
specimen  samples  were  taken,  was  made  from  frosted 
canes.  In  fact,  so  imperfect  was  it  compared  to  what  it 
might  have  been,  that,  judging  from  its  quality,  Mr. 
Peters  is  now  convi  iced,  that  if  he  but  takes  ordinary 


SYRUP.  181 

precautions  with,  this  season's  crop,  he  will  be  able  to 
make  a  syrup  worth  one  dollar  per  gallon.  The  syrup 
which  we  made  at  our  own  place,  was  of  better  color  and 
superior  taste  to  the  Georgia  specimen ;  and  I  have  seen 
samples  from  other  states,  which  much  surpassed  our 
own.  One,  especially,  made  by  Mr.  Boylston,  Editor  of  the, 
"  Amherst  Cabinet,"  New  Hampshire,  was  equal,  if  not 
superior  to  Stewart's  syrup. 

Doctor  A.  A.  Hayes,  of  Boston,  one  of  the  Assayers  to 
the  State  of  Massachusetts,  told  me,  recently,  that  he  was 
convinced  that  excellent  syrup  could  be  made  from  the 
sap  in  considerable  quantities.  And  at  a  recent  meeting 
of  the  Farmers'  Club  of  the  American  Institute,  Doctor 
Charles  T.  Jackson,  of  Boston,  the  associate  Assay er  with 
Dr.  Hayes,  said  "the  syrup  of  this  new  sugar  plant,  prop- 
erly refined,  and  mixed  with  a  small  per  centage  of  honey, 
is  equally  delicious  as  honey  from  the  hive."  This 
gentleman  informs  me,  that  the  specimens  made  by  him 
from  the  canes  furnished  by  the  General  Government, 
were  completely  colorless. 

All  these  facts  go  to  prove  that  the  best  results  are 
always  obtained  by  careful  management,  and  whilst  tho 
climate  and  soil  of  various  localities  doubtless  exercise 
no  inconsiderable  influence,  yet  we  may  rest  assured,  that 
either  at  the  North  or  South  an  intelligent  and  experi- 
enced operator  and  a  suitable  apparatus,  will  always 
command  greater  profit  and  better  -quality  of  product, 
than  a  shiftless  experimenter. 


132  THE   CHINESE   SUGAR   CANE. 

THE  SEED  MAY  BE  GATHERED  WJ1EN  CROWN  FOR  A  SYRUP  CROP. 

It  has  been  sufficiently  well  proved  that  the  ripening 
of  the  seed  of  the  sorgho  does  not  interfere  with  the  ex- 
traction of  the  full  richness  of  the  saccharine  matters  in 
the  juice,  and  the  farmer  who  is  desirous  of  growing 
enough  of  a  crop  to  make  the  molasses  for  his  family 
use,  will  be  furnished  with  a  further  inducement  to  do  so 
from  the  fact,  that  at  the  same  time  he  can  be  cultivating 
a  prolific  crop  of  seed  for  feeding  to  his  poultry,  and  a 
large  amount  of  green  forage,  in  the  leaves,  for  his 
horses  and  stock. 


APPARATUS  NECESSARY. 

To  persons  who  merely  desire  to  make  a  few  gallons 
of  syrup  for  their  family  use,  a  complete  apparatus  is  not 
of  paramount  importance ;  but  if  it  is  in  contemplation 
to  duplicate  such  extensive  practice  as  that  of  Mr.  Peters, 
it  will  be  a  matter  of  positive  economy  to  procure  a  mill 
and  boilers  that  will  extract  the  greatest  possible  amount 
of  sap  from  a  given  quantity  of  stalks.  The  juice  last 
expressed  from  the  cane  is  the  richest,  and  it  is  therefore 
desirable  to  procure  a  mill  of  sufficient  strength  to  ex- 
stract  nearly  the  whole  sap.  Small  farmers  and  planters 
can,  of  course,  only  approximate  to  this  end,  because  of 
the  great  grinding  capacity  and  very  large  expense  of 
the  more  powerful  mills ;  but  I  do  not  think  that  a  farmer, 
with  a  crop  of  only  five  or  ten  acres,  should  use  a  wooden 
roller  mill  when  he  can  procure  one  with  iron  rollers  for 
twice  or  thrice  the  money.  The  canes  of  the  sorgho  are 


SYRUP.  133 

hard,  both  because  of  being  so  very  full  of  sap,  and  from 
the  large  quantity  of  silex  in  their  outer  coating ;  and  a 
wooden  roller  mill  could  scarcely  be  depended  upon  to 
last  through  a  season  without  breaking,  or,  if  it  should, 
the  rollers  would  most  probably  be  crushed  and  badly 
indented  by  the  hard  canes.  Another  argument  in  favor 
of  iron  rollers  is,  that  the  saccharine  juice  of  the  sorgho, 
when  taken  up  by  the  pores  of  wood,  is  exceedingly 
likely  to  become  sour,  and  thus  injures  the  portions  of 
juice  successively  passing  through  the  mill. 


M.  D'iVERNOIS'   SYRUP. 

It  is  possible  to  make  syrup  from  the  sorgho  without 
the  use  of  any  mill  or  crushing  apparatus  whatever. 
Thus,  according  to  an  article  by  M.  d'lvernois,  trans- 
lated from  the  Bulletin  of  the  Imperial  (French)  Accli- 
mation Society,  by  Hon.  H.  Meigs,  Secretary  of  the 
American  Institute,  all  that  is  necessary  is  to  select  the 
butts  of  mature  stalks,  cut  them  into  pieces  of  about  an 
inch  in  length,  and  boil  them  in  pure  water  in  an  iron 
pot.  When  the  water  has  become  charged  with  the 
sweet  juices  of  the  cane  clippings,  it  should  be  strained  off 
and  clarified  in  the  usual  way,  with  a  little  cream  of  lime, 
whites  of  eggs,  bullock's  blood,  or  skimmed  milk.  After 
another  boiling,  to  reduce  it  to  proper  consistency,  it  may 
be  put  into  stone  jars  or  pots  and  tightly  covered,  like 
ordinary  preserves.  This  practice  is  at  best  an  imperfect 
one ;  for,  not  only  is  the  saccharine  matter  in  the  stalks 
boiled  out,  but,  at  the  same  time,  all  the  other  soluble, 
6* 


134  THE   CHINESE   SUGAR   CANE. 

organic  matters,  such  as  wax  and  chlorophyl,*  which 
impart  a  disagreable  taste  to  the  syrup. 

IRON  ROLLERS  BETTER  THAN  WOODEN  ROLLERS. 

An  idea  may  be  had  of  the  imperfection  of  Colonel 
Peters'  mill,  when  we  reflect  that  whilst  with  it  he  ob- 
tained but  fifty  percent,  of  juice,  Dr.  Eobert  Battey,  by 
pressing  and  subsequent  evaporation,  got  84^  per  cent,  of 
sap  and  only  15£  of  woody  fiber.  It  is  found  by  numerous 
experiments,  that  with  proper  machinery,  seventy  per 
cent,  should  be  obtained  as  an  average  product,  and 
when  we  consider  that  with  only  fifty  per  cent.  Mr.  Peters 
actually  worked  up  an  average  crop  of  407  gallons  of 
syrup  per  acre,  my  reader  will  doubtless  agree  with  me 
that  the  difference  on  a  single  acre  between  the  syrup 
from  thirty  or  forty  and  seventy  per  cent,  of  sap  would 
more  than  warrant  the  substitution  of  an  iron  roller  for  a 
wooden  roller  mill. 


AMOUNT  OF  SACCHARINE  MATTERS  VARY  IN  DIFFERENT  CASES. 

The  different  writers  on  the  sorgho,  who  have  experi- 
mented with  the  sap,  give  various  accounts  of  its  richness. 

*  This  Morophyl  (green  coloring  matter)  injures  the  quality  of  the 
juice  expressed  from  the  sorgho  in  the  large  processes  of  manufacture, 
and  therefore  as,  both  in  the  West  Indian  Cane  and  the  Chinese  Sugar 
Cane,  the  greater  saccharine  richness  lies  in  the  lower  parts  of  the 
stalk,  those  nearest  the  butt,  it  is  advisable  to  cut  off  about  two 
and  a  half  or  three  feet  of  stalk,  when  the  seed  heads  are  removed  : 
and  all  the  leaves  of  stalks  inl  andei  for  sugar  or  syrup  making  should 
be  removed.  . 


SYRUP.  135 

Thus,  a  sample  grown  near  Washington  gave  Mr.  Browne 
fourteen  per  cent,  of  dry  saccharine  matter,  but  another 
from  the  Arsenal,  near  Boston,  yielded  twenty -three  per 
cent.  Vilmorin's  proportions  varied  ten  to  sixteen  per 
cent.  Dr.  Turrel's  from  ten  to  twenty.  Mr.  W  ray's 
imphees  sixteen  per  cent,  of  sugar.  Mr.  Avequin's,  in 
Louisiana,  was  a  little  over  ten.  The  densities  were  also 
different.  Dr.  Battey,  of  Georgia,  found  his  superior  to  Vil- 
morin's, the  latter  ranging  from  1'050  to  1'075,  whilst  the 
former's  uniformly  stood  at  1*085.  Avequin's  was  1'064, 
reaching  almost  to  9°  Beaume.  Mr.  Hardy's,  in  Algiers, 
stood  at  8|.° 

If  we  accept  even  the  lowest  per  centage  shown  above, 
we  still  shall  have  a  sacchariferous  plant  much  superior  to 
the  sugar  beet,  which  in  1854,  in  France  alone,  employed 
three  hundred  and  thirty-two  manufactories,  producing 
158,000,000  pounds  of  sugar,  besides  molasses.  In  this 
same  year  (1854)  there  were  consumed  in  the  United 
States  over  fourteen  million  gallons  of  molasses,  which, 
at  thirty  cents,  cost  us  $4,200,000,  and  as  we  approach  the 
threshold  of  1858,  the  price  is  doubled.  Who,  then,  will 
have  the  temerity  to  say  that  even  if  the  sorgho  had  not 
proved  its  capacity  to  furnish  good,  crystallized  sugar, 
that  as  a  molasses-producing  plant,  it  would  not  have 
proved  a  source  of  vast  wealth  ? 

SYRUP  BOILING. 

The  process  of  reducing  the  sap  to  the  consistency  of 
syrup,  is  so  simple  as  scarcely  to  demand  very  protracted 
instructions.  The  farmer,  having  cut  his  canes  as  near 
the  ground  as  possible,  stripped  off  the  leaves  and  remov- 


136          THE  CHINESE  SUGAR  CANE. 

ed  the  tufts,  carts  them  to  the  mill  as  fast  as  he  can  con 
veniently  grind  them.  The  juice  runs  through  a  tin 
pipe  into  a  tub,  or  box,  painted  on  the  inside,  or  a  large 
wooden  reservoir,  lined  with  tin,  lead,  or  sheet  copper, 
either  of  which  should  at  all  times  be  kept  scrupulously 
clean.  In  this,  those  only  using  Mr.  Wray'.s  patent  can 
add  the  lime  to  clarify  the  juice  in  the  cold  state,  and  from 
thence  pump  or  bail  it  into  the  boiler,  where,  as  the  heat 
rises  to  from  120°  to  180°  Fah.,  the  dilute  infusion  of  pow- 
dered nutgalls  is  introduced.  The  syrup  is  then  carried  to 
the  boiling  point,  when  the  fire  is  at  once  checked,  the 
syrup  stands  for  about  fifteen  or  twenty  minutes,  to  give 
the  scum  a  chance  to  rise  and  be  skimmed  off ;  the  fire  is 
then  urged  again.  The  syrup  then  is  kept  boiling  until 
reduced  to  the  proper  consistency.  This  precise  degree 
is  ascertained  by  the  insertion  of  a  little  glass  or  metallic 
instrument  called  a  "  syrup  guage."  These  may  be  had 
of  Messrs.  Pike  and  Son  of  New  York,  opticians,  or  Mr. 
Jno.  W.  Reid,  or  any  other  respectable  sugar-apparatus 
maker.  My  friend,  Dr.  Eobert  Battey,  has  prepared  a 
syrup  guage,  on  which  he  has  marked  but  one  degree, 
and  it  is  thus  rendered  so  extremely  simple  that  any 
farmer,  or  farmer's  laborer,  can  always  tell  the  exact 
moment  of  its  arriving  at  the  "  proof  point."  The  draw- 
back to  it  is  that  it  is  made  of  glass,  and  is  thus  liable,  un- 
less securely  packed,  to  be  broken  in  being  transported, 
and  when  in  use,  otherwise  the  idea  is  an  excellent  one. 

For  the  benefit  of  such  as  do  not  wish  to  purchase 
the  right  to  use  Mr.  Wray's  patent,  which  all  should, 
I  subjoin  the  directions  given  by  Dr.  Battey  in  Mr.  Red- 
mond's pamphlet : 


SYEUP.  137 


BOILING  DOWN. 

"  The  fires  should  be  so  arranged  that  they  may  be 
under  good  control,  to  be  forced  or  withdrawn,  as  occasion 
may  require.  When  the  juice  is  placed  in  the  boiler,  the 
fire  should  be  gradually  increased  to  a  simmering  heat, 
(not  to  active  boiling,)  and  maintained  at  this  tempera- 
ture until  a  thick  green  scum  rises  to  the  surface,  and 
forms  into  puffs,  seeming  ready  to  crack.  This  scum, 
when  fully  formed,  should  be  removed  clean  from  the 
surface.  The  heat  may  now  be  raised  to  boiling,  and 
kept  in  an  active  state  of  ebullition  until  the  bulk  is  re- 
duced one  half.  The  fire  may  be  removed  from  one 
kettle,  and  its  contents  be  transferred  to  the  other,  when 
the  heat  must  be  gradually  moderated,  as  the  syrup  be- 
comes more  concentrated,  to  avoid  the  danger  of  scorch- 
ing, which  injures  the  color  and  flavor.  Should  more 
dirty  green  scum  rise  to  the  surface  after  the  first  skim- 
ming, it  should  likewise  be  removed. 

"  In  regard  to  the  precise  degree  of  concentration  to 
which  the  syrup  should  be  brought,  it  is  exceedingly  dif- 
ficult to  lay  down  any  precise  and  simple  rule  which 
shall  meet  every  case.  The  plan  for  determining  it,  in  use 
on  the  sugar  plantation,  and  which  was  adopted  by  Gover- 
nor Hammond  and  Mr.  Peters,  is  based  upon  the  judg- 
ment of  the  eye,  in  respect  to  the  consistence  of  the  syrup, 
when  poured  from  the  ladle,  and  cooled  as  it  drops  from 
its  edge.  This  test  is  evidently  very  defective,  since  the 
temperature  of  the  atmosphere  regulates  the  consistence 
which  the  syrup  must  assume  on  cooling  down — so  that 
a  syrup  boiled  on  a  cold  day  will  necessarily  be  thin  and 


138  THE   CHINESE  SUGAK  CANE. 

watery  as  the  weather  moderates,  and  a  syrup  finished 
at  night  will  differ  materially  from  that  of  the  noon-day. 
Although  a  good  approximation,  it  is  not  exact  enough 
for  the  tyro — to  secure  a  desirable  uniformity  in  the  con- 
sistence and  value  of  the  product,  or  to  obviate  the 
danger  of  fermentation  and  loss.  To  remedy  this  uncer- 
tainty, and  secure  a  uniform  result  at  all  times,  I  have 
constructed  a  simple  instrument  which  determines  readily, 
and  with  certainty,  the  precise  moment  when  the  syrup 
should  be  removed  from  the  fire  and  transferred  to  the 
barrels. 

"  It  is  a  prevalent  opinion  that  lime  should  always  be 
added  to  the  juice,  as  soon  as  it  is  pressed  out,  and  the 
idea  has  been  advanced  that  it  could  not  be  clarified 
without  lime.  This  is  undoubtedly  a  mistake ;  the  juice 
alone,  under  my  hands,  clarifies  itself  more  readily  with- 
out lime  than  with  it.  The  latter  answers  no  useful  pur- 
pose, so  far  as  the  syrup  is  concerned,  save  to  neutralize 
the  free  acid  (phosphoric)  which  exists  naturally  in  the 
cane.  Lime  darkens  the  color,  and,  to  my  taste,  detracts 
from  the  peculiar  grateful  flavor  of  the  syrup.  Many 
would,  perhaps,  object  to  the  slight  acidity.  To  such  I 
would  say,  use  the  lime,  but  use  it  sparingly.  To  pre- 
pare it  for  use,  take  a  half  peck  of  lime,  slake  it  in  a  bucket 
of  water,  gradually  added,  stir  up  well,  and  strain  the 
milk  through  a  cloth ;  let  it  settle  for  half  a  day,  pour 
off  the  water  and  dry  the  powder.  Of  the  latter,  you 
may  use  from  half  a  teaspoonful  to  two  teaspoonful  for 
every  five  gallons  juice,  afte T  the  scum  has  been  removed." 


SYRUP.  139 

NECESSITY  EOR  CLEANLINESS  AND  SYSTEM. 

One  requisite  to  ensure  the  production  of  good,  clean 
syrup,  is  that  the  greatest  cleanliness  should  be  observed 
throughout  every  stage  of  the  manufacture.  The  mill, 
boilers,  ladles,  buckets,  troughs,  reservoir,  and  every  piece 
of  apparatus,  and  each  implement  used  in  the  syrup  mak- 
ing should  be  cleaned  off  as  soon  as  they  are  no  longer  in 
actual  use.  The  canes  should  be  stripped  clean  of  all  dry 
or  green  leaves,  and  when  convenient,  any  lumps  of  dirt  or 
other  impurities  be  knocked  off,  before  the  canes  are  passed 
through  the  mill.  Only  ripe  and  sound  canes  should  be 
used  ;  and  the  ground  about  the  mill  should  be  neatly 
swept,  and  all  rubbish  removed.  If  the  boiling  is  done 
under  a  shed,  or  in  a  building,  it  should  be  as  neatly 
maintained,  and  all  things  should  be  as  systematically 
arranged  as  if  it  were  a  private  parlor ;  for  not  only  is 
the  introduction  of  impurities  into  the  syrup  prevented, 
but  the  operator  and  his  assistants  can,  at  the  desired 
moment,  at  once  lay  hands  upon  any  one  of  the  instru- 
ments needful  at  the  various  stages  of  the  operation. 

COLONEL  PETERS'  RESULTS. 

The  yield  of  juice  and  of  syrup  obtained  by  Colonel 
Peters,  were  as  follows. : 

BEST    EIGHTH  OF  AN  ACEE. 

Yield  of  juice  from  3315  canes,         -        -    253  gallons. 
Yield  of  syrup  from  253  gallons  juice,  -  58  gallons. 

Bate  of  syrup  per  acre,     ....     468  gallons. 


140  THE   CHINESE   SUGAR   CANE. 

POOREST  EIGHTH  OF  AN  ACRE. 

Yield  of  juice  from  2550  canes,  -  -  179  gallons. 
Yield  of  syrup  from  179  gallons  juice,  -  43|  gallons. 
Bate  per  acre,  of  syrup,  -  -  -  346  gallons. 

Weight  of  thirty  select  canes,  -        -  -    49|  pounds. 

Weight  of  juice  pressed  out,                   -  25 1  pounds. 

Weight  of  crushed  cane,  23  pounds. 

Loss  in  crushing,           ....  |  pounds 

Weight  of  crushed  cane  dried  in  sun,  -     9|  pounds. 

Or,  in  other  words,  he  made  an  average  crop,  four  hundred 
and  seven  gallons  of  syrup ;  and  even  then  obtained  only 
five  sevenths  of  which  he  actually  should,  if  he  had  been 
in  possession  of  perfect  machinery. 

With  such  results  as  these  for  consideration,  how  for- 
tunate, nay,  how  providential  must  it  seem,  that  just  as 
short  crops,  combination  of  capitalists,  and  increase  of 
consumers  threaten  us  with  an  alarming  advance  in  the 
price  of  an  article  which  is  no  longer  a  luxury,  but  a 
necessary  of  life,  a  new  sugar  plant  is  given  to  us,  of  such 
prolific  resources  as  this  Chinese  Sugar  Cane. 


CHAPTBE   VII. 

ALCOHOL. 

ITS  IMPORTANCE  AS  AN  ARTICLE  OP  MANUFACTURE. 

ALCOHOL,  at  the  present  day,  occupies  a  very  import- 
ant place  in  the  domestic  economy  of  every  family ;  not, 
it  may  be,  in  the  form  with  which  it  comes  to  us  from 
the  distillery,  but  disguised  under  the  familiar  cognomen 
of  many  articles  in  daily  consumption,  it  performs  its 
useful  functions,  unchallenged  and  unsuspected  even  by 
the  members  of  the  Temperance  Society. 

In  the  materia  medica  we  are  indebted  to  it  for  chloro- 
form and  ether,  and  many  of  our  most  valuable  vegetable 
extracts  and  essences  could  not  be  obtained  without  it 
In  the  arts  we  require  its  aid  to  dissolve  the  refractory 
gums  and  resins;  while  in  the  shape  of  camphene,  or 
spirit  gas,  it  yields,  with  other  ingredients,  a  brilliant  and 
economic  means  of  illuminating  our  dwelling-houses  and 
workshops. 

It  is  true  that  alcohol,  in  its  abuse  as  a  beverage,  is  the 
cause  of  much  individual  suffering  from  time  to  time ; 
instances  of  this,  however,  are  small  compared  with  the 
universal  benefit  which  it  affords ;  and  seeing  that  it  is 
not  in  the  light  of  a  beverage  exclusively  that  I  mean  to 
treat  of  it,  but  also  as  an  important  item  in  our  national 
economy,  I  trust  that  even  the  most  fastidious  will  hold 
me  blameless  if,  in  the  course  of  my  remarks,  I  endeavor 

[141] 


142  THE   CHINESE    feUGAll    CANE. 

to  impart  to  others  what  little  knowledge  and  experience 
I  may  possess  in  regard  to  this  most  important  manufac- 
ture. 

THE  CEREALS  NO  LONGER  XEED  BE  EMPLOYED  TO  MAKE  ALCOHOL. 

Hitherto  molasses  from  the  cane,  and  the  cereals,  corn, 
barley,  and  rye,  have  furnished  the  bulk  of  the  spirit  so 
extensively  needed,  but  a  new  era  seems  about  to  dawn 
upon  us ;  the  cereals  may  return  to  more  legitimate  chan- 
nels of  consumption,  while  a  new  plant,  useful  it  would 
seem,  besides,  for  other  purposes,  supplies  their  place — 
the  discovery  of  which,  and  introduction  to  our  country, 
deserves  to  be  classed  among  the  most  important  events 
of  the  age,  while  every  endeavor  ought  to  be  used  to 
develop,  rather  than  to  retard,  through  a  mistaken  and 
narrow-minded  philanthropy,  its  application  to  the  manu- 
facture of  spirit,  which,  I  have  shown,  has  now  become 
an  article  of  large  consumption  among  us. 

WHAT  IS  ALCOHOL  ?    HOW  MADE ! 

Alcohol  may  be  termed,  practically,  pure  spirit,  the 
result  of  vinous  fermentation  in  certain  bodies  capable  of 
assuming  this  condition,  from  which  it  is  obtained  by  dis- 
tillation. A  few  of  these  bodies  are  wine,  cider,  beer, 
and  cane  juice.  When  either  of  these  liquids  has  under- 
gone the  vinous  fermentation,  and  is  subjected  to  vapor- 
ization in  a  close  vessel  with  a  suitable  condenser,  alco- 
hol is  obtained  as  a  result,  more  or  less  pure  according  to 
the  apparatus  employed  and  the  skill  of  the  operator. 

Rum,  gin,  brandy,  and  whiskey,  are  nothing  but  alco- 
hol more  or  less  dilute  and  flavored  with  the  essential 


ALCOHOL.  143 

oils,  which  give  them  character.  Thus  rum  is  alcohol 
flavored  with  the  essential  oil  of  the  sugar  cane ;  gin  with 
the  oil  of  the  juniper  berry ;  brandy  with  the  oil  of  the 
grape ;  while  whiskey  owes  its  peculiarity  to  the  well- 
known  fusil  oil  inherent  in  grain.  By  depriving  either 
of  these  liquors  of  the  essential  oils,  coloring  matters,  and 
volume  of  water  they  contain  by  means  of  rectification, 
we  obtain  from  them  pure  alcohol,  or  the  well  known 
spirit  of  wine  of  the  apothecaries'  shops. 

To  obtain  absolute  alcohol,  or  a  spirit  perfectly  free  from 
water,  is  impossible  by  any  of  the  distilling  apparatus  yet 
invented,  alcohol  having  too  great  an  affinity  for  water, 
to  be  separated  entirely  by  mechanical  means.  Yet  a 
spirit  sufficiently  pure  for  all  commercial  purposes  may 
be  produced  by  a  variety  of  distillatory  arrangements, 
which  it  shall  be  my  duty  to  refer  to  in  the  proper  place. 
Spirit  containing  only  five  per  cent,  of  water  may  be  manu- 
factured by  a  good  apparatus. 

It  being  the  purpose  of  this  work  to  treat  only  of  the 
sorgho  and  its  products,  it  is  to  the  manufacture  of  sorgho 
spirit  only  that  I  shall  refer.  But  as  in  the  case  of  the 
manufacture  of  sugar  from  the  same  source,  I  considered 
a  description  of  a  West  Indian  plantation  and  apparatus 
best  calculated  to  elucidate  the  subject,  so,  as  regards  the 
manufacture  of  sorgho  rum  or  spirit,  a  short  detail  of.  the 
methods  practiced  in  Cuba  and  the  Windward  Islands, 
together  with  a  few  illustrations  of  improved  apparatus, 
will  best  serve  the  purpose,  feeling  assured — judging 
from  a  sample  of  sorgho  syrup  received  from  Mr.  Olcott 
— that  the  products  of  the  cane  and  sorgho  are  alike,  and 
required  similar  treatment  to  obtain  like  results. 


144  THE  CHINESE  SUGAR  CANE. 

Distillation  being  an  operation  which  requires  prepar- 
ation in  the  fluid  to  be  operated  upon,  before  proceeding 
to  distil  we  must  first  understand  how  to  prepare  the 
wash  so  as  to  obtain  the  largest  amount  of  alcohol  from 
a  given  amount  of  sweet  liquor.  Where  grain  is  the 
substance  employed  to  form  the  wort  or  wash,  the  mani- 
pulations are  complex  and  various,  requiring  long  expe- 
rience to  understand  thoroughly  ;  but  when,  as  in  the 
present  case,  the  fluid  is  already  in  a  forward  state  of 
preparation,  by  reason  of  its  nature,  and  requiring  to 
undergo  but  one  preparative  operation  previous  to  distil- 
lation, the  subject  becomes  simplified,  and  less  difficult  to 
describe  or  comprehend. 


FERMENTATION. 

To  produce  the  vinous  or  alcoholic  fermentation  in  a 
fluid,  it  is  a  first  requisite  that  that  fluid  be  sweet.  This 
sweetness  may  either  be  the  result  of  chemical  combi- 
nation, brought  about  by  art,  as  in  the  case  of  worts  made 
from  grain,  or  it  may  be  the  natural  condition  of  the 
fluid,  as  in  the  case  of  the  expressed  juice  of  the  sorgho. 

When  fermentation  takes  place,  several  phenomena  not 
to  be  mistaken  make  their  appearance.  The  juice  seems 
to  boil,  minute  globules  of  carbonic  acid  gas  come  to  the 
surface,  like  the  effervescence  of  champagne  when  viewed 
through  a  glass,  the  temperature  rises  several  degrees 
above  that  of  the  atmosphere,  an  aromatic,  rummy  smell 
is  evolved,  and  a  scum  of  yeast  gathers  on  the  top.  To 
the  tongue,  the  previous  sweet  flavor  has  given  place  to 
a  slightly  acid,  pungent  taste,  and  when  the  fermentation 


ALCOHOL.  145 

has  been  brought  successfully  to  a  close,  the  wash,  which 
before  fermentation  was  commenced  marked  8°  to  10° 
Beaume,  will  now  be  found  to  mark  little  over  1° 
Beaume',  showing  that  nearly  all  the  saccharine  matter 
has  been  changed  into  alcohol.  If  left  twelve  hours  after 
this,  the  acetic  or  vinegar  fermentation  commences,  and 
the  alcohol  gradually  disappears,  to  the  serious  loss  of 
the  distiller. 

In  the  West  Indies,  the  mixture  of  the  materials,  or 
what  is  termed  setting  the  wash,  varies  with  the  season. 
When  crop  has  just  commenced,  or  just  finished,  it  is 
different  from  what  it  is  in  winter,  as  the  rainy  season  is 
called  ;  besides,  the  scientific  distiller  varies  his  mixtures 
to  suit  circumstances.  The  same  proportions  that  are 
suitable  for  one  state  of  the  atmosphere  may  be  unsuit- 
able for  another,  and  it  is  the  capacity  to  judge  what  is 
best  for  the  season  that  constitutes  the  valuable  overseer 
to  the  still  house. 

Owing  to  its  liability  to  conflagration,  the  still  house 
is  generally  set  apart,  but  in  the  vicinity  of  the  boiling 
house,  so  that  too  much  labor  may  not  accrue  from 
having  to  carry  to  it  the  scum  of  the  kettles  and  molasses 
for  conversion  into  alcohol. 

If  the  still  be  a  small  one,  the  planter  usually  contents 
himself  with  a  mere  shed  for  a  still  house,  and  a  few 
rum  puncheons,  with  a  square  hole  cut  on  the  side  where 
the  bung-hole  has  been,  for  fermenting  vats.  But  if  rum 
is  intended  to  be  one  of  the  regular  products  of  the  estate, 
the  matter  is  gone  into  more  carefully.  A  regular  stone 
still  house  is  built,  and  proper  fermenting  tuns  of  oak  or 
white  pine  provided. 
7 


146  THE  CHINESE  SUGAR  CANE. 

The  still  house  is  generally  of  two  stories,  each  pretty 
high ;  the  second  story  consisting  of  a  floor  extending 
up  to  the  place  where  the  still  is  set.  Here  it  is  cut 
away,  and  the  space  is  left  clear  from  the  ground  to  the 
roof;  this  is  to  allow  of  the  various  appurtenances  of  the 
still  being  elevated  to  the  proper  height,  free  from  ob- 
struction from  joists  or  other  interferences. 

In  extensive  distilleries,  however,  such  as  that  of  the 
Messrs.  Belchers,  in  Matanzas,  Cuba,  the  still  house  is  of 
several  stories,  and  special  arrangements  are  made  to  suit 
circumstances.  Here  as  many  as  thirty  or  forty  large 
fermenting  tuns  are  employed,  each  capable  of  contain- 
ing from  two  to  three  thousand  gallons,  so  arranged  that 
no  more  of  the  mosta,  or  wash,  shall  mature  each  day 
than  is  capable  of  being  distilled  within  twenty -four  hours. 

Underneath  the  ground  floor  of  the  still  house  a  mixing 
tub  ought  to  be  placed,  and  grated  over  with  a  wooden 
grating  level  with  the  floor,  so  that  a  molasses  puncheon 
maybe  rolled  over  it,  the  bung  taken  out,  and  its  contents 
let  down  through  the  bars,  to  save  labor.  This  tub  or 
vat  ought  to  contain  a  charge  for  one  or  more  of  the 
fermenting  vats  employed.  The  mixture  of  the  ingre- 
dients for  fermentation  is  made  in  it  by  agitating  them 
together  by  means  of  wooden  rakes  or  oars.  When 
completed,  the  wash  is  pumped  up  into  the  fermenting 
tubs,  tuns,  vats,  or  backs,  as  they  are  called  irrespectively 
according  to  local  usage,  where  it  undergoes  the  vinous 
or  alcoholic  fermentation,  and  in  turn  is  distilled  into 
rum  or  low  wines.  As  many  as  twenty  pipes  of  rum,  of 
one  hundred  and  twenty  gallons  each,  are  made  on  some 
large  estates  each  day  during  crop. 


ALCOHOL.  147 

So  far  the  arrangements  of  West  India  still  houses  have 
proved  appropriate  and  applicable  to  the  distillation  of 
the  sorgho,  but  here  the  applicability  ceases  ;  for  the 
West  Indian  mode  of  setting  the  wash,  and  the  time 
allowed  for  fermentation  there,  is  quite  unsuited  to  the 
variety  of  the  cane  family  we  are  at  present  considering. 
I  will,  therefore,  now  proceed  to  describe  the  process 
best  suited  to  the  new  plant,  so  as  to  obtain  the  best 
results,  taking  my  data  from  the  various  French  reports 
which  have  been  made  on  the  subject. 

THE  ALCOHOLIZATION  OF  THE  SORGHO. 

In  France  there  have  been  quite  a  number  of  experi- 
ments made  on  the  conversion  of  the  sweet" juices  of  the 
sorgho  sucre  into  various  liquors,  such  as  rum,  brandy, 
wine,  and  beer.  We  find  Vilmorin  in  1854,  Alphandery 
in  1855,  Bourdais,  Sicard,  and  Madinier  in  1856,  and 
Detur  in  1857,  publishing  reports  on  the  subject,  to 
which  I  shall  refer. 

Alphandery  reports  that  he  made  very  good  brandy 
by  concentrating  the  juice  of  the  sorgho  slightly  (12  B.  ?) 
and  putting  it  into  a  barrel,  where  it  fermented  a  week, 
then  distilling  it.  The  eau  de  vie,  says  he,  thus 
obtained,  is  incontestibly  superior  to  that  made  from 
wine  (real  brandy.)  Also,  that  if  some  of  the  juice  be 
taken  during  fermentation,  and  bottled  close,  it  makes  a 
very  agreeable  drink. 

It  is  evident  from  the  above  that  the  circumstances 
under  which  M.  Alphandery  fermented  his  juice  were 
unfavorable,  as  the  sorgho  almost  always,  when  properly 


148  THE   CHINESE   SUGAR  CANE. 

cared  for,  finishes  fermentation  in  three  days  at  most. 
Nevertheless,  his  testimony  is  valuable  as  to  the  quality 
of  the  product. 

M.  Madinier  endorses  the  statement  of  M.  Hardy, 
that  the  juice  of  the  sorgho  contains  naturally  a  fermen- 
tative principle,  sufficient  for  perfect  alcoholization,  but 
thinks  it  best  to  throw  in  with  the  juice  a  few  of  the  fresh 
crashed  canes,  which  greatly  accelerates  the  attenuation. 
He  also  advises  very  wide  and  shallow  fermenting 
cisterns,  so  as  to  expose  as  much  surface  to  the  air  as 
possible,  and  to  set  the  cisterns  at  a  temperature  of 
twenty  or  twenty-five  degrees  centigrade,  equal  to 
seventy-seven  Fahrenheit.  M.  Sicard,  in  his  work, 
merely  collates  the  experiences  of  others,  among  which 
are  Beauregard,  Fissiaux,  and  Eaoul.  One  point,  how- 
ever, they  all  agree  upon,  that  is,  that  the  wash  ought  to 
be  kept  in  a  room,  the  temperature  of  which  is  eighteen 
degrees  centigrade,  or  say  sixty -four  Fahrenheit. 

M.  F.  Bourdais,  however,  a  distiller  in  Algeria,  at 
length,  in  1856,  treats  the  matter  in  a  thoroughly  prac- 
tical and  scientific  manner ;  he  gives  us  facts,  not  theories, 
and  proves  most  conclusively  that  the  sorgho  is  perhaps 
the  best  alcohol -producing  plant  yet  discovered. 

The  operations  on  which  he  based  his  calculations  and 
deductions  were  all  on  a  large  scale,  and  therefore  less 
liable  to  error  than  the  laboratory  experiments  of  most 
of  his  predecessors  in  this  field.  He  planted  five  hectares, 
say  ten  acres,  with  sorgho,  and  professes  to  give  results 
with  scrupulous  exactitude. 


ALCOHOL.  149 

COST  TO  PRODUCE  A  GALLON  ALCOHOL  MOM  SORGHO,  NINETY-FOUR 
PER  CENT.  STRENGTH. 

He  found  that  to  cultivate  and  prepare  for 
grinding  one  hectare,  or  say  two  acres,  of 
sorgho  cost  him  685  francs,  or  say  -  -  $137  00 

But  of  the  green  fodder  stripped  from  the  canes 
he  sold  seventy-eight  quintals,  or  say  17,000 
Ibs.,  at  three  francs  for  100  kilogrammes, 
which  is  sixty  cents  per  220  Ibs.,  -  -  46  80 

$90  20 

Of  prepared  canes  he  obtained  ready  for  the 
mill,  520  quintals,  or  114,920  Ibs.,  making 
cost  of  production  per  quintal  of  220  Ibs., 
about  17  f  cents. 

Each  quintal  (220  Ibs.)  yielded,  on  distillation, 
5  litres  20  centolitres,  or  say  1}  gallons,  alco- 
hol, at  94°,  thus  costing  per  litre  of  If  pints 
0  15  1,  or  about 4  cents 

To  which  add  cost  of  crushing,  maceration,  fer- 
mentation, yeast,  distillation,  and  rectification,  10  cents 

Cartage  to  town, l£  cents 

Cost  per  litre  (If  pints)  of  alcohol,  94°,  15^  cents 

or  say  71  cents  per  gallon,  nearly. 


DETAILS  OF  THE  MANUFACTURE  OF  ALCOHOL  FROM  SAT  FITE  HECTARES, 
OR  TEN  ACRES,  OF  SORGHO,  AS  GIVEN  BY  BOURDAIS. 

The  canes,  stripped  of  their  leaves,  are  passed  through 
a  cane  mill,  the  juics  runs  into  a  tank  capable  of  holding 


150  THE  CHINESE  SUGAR  CANE. 

forty  hectolitres  (eight  hundred  and  eighty  gallons),  the 
bagasse,  or  crushed  canes,  still  retaining  a  considerable 
quantity  of  juice,  are  steeped  in  hot  water.  Nine  hundred 
and  fifty  kilogrammes  (two  thousand  six  hundred  Ibs.) 
of  these  yield  twenty  hectolitres  (four  hundred  and  forty 
gallons)  of  juice  and  water  at  3°  Beaume^  while  the  juice 
first  expressed  stands  10°  Beaum6. 

On  finding  it  was  going  to  cost  him  too  much  to  cut 
and  gather  the  grain  from  his  sorgho,  he  determined  not 
to  do  so,  but  after  choosing  sufficient  of  the  best  seed  for 
next  year,  he  left  the  grain  attached  to  the  stalks,  and 
crushed  all  together. 

When  he  came  to  macerate  with  hot  water,  the  heat 
immediately  acted  upon  the  starch  of  the  corn,  and  deter- 
mined its  transformation  to  sugar.  He  thus  obtained, 
by  the  same  operation,  both  the  saccharine  of  the  grain 
and  the  residue  of  the  juice  from  the  canes. 

The  juice,  on  leaving  the  steeping  vats  at  3°  B.,  must  be 
enriched  with  pure  juice  till  it  marks  5°  B.  Eight  hecto- 
litres of  this  (one  hundred  and  seventy-six  gallons),  at  a 
temperature  of  30°  centigrade  (86°  F.)  are  mixed  in  a  fer- 
menting vat  with  five  litres  (one  and  one  eighth  gallons) 
brewers'  yeast ;  this  he  calls  the  foot.  In  an  hour  it  is  in  a 
high  state  of  fermentation,  and  he  then  fills  up  the  vat  with 
twenty-two  hectolitres  (four  hundred  and  eighty-four 
gallons)  also  at  30°  cent.  (86°  F.) ;  in  another  hour  the  whole 
is  fermenting.  He  states  the  above  from  his  own  expe- 
rience, and  remarks  that  the  fermentation  proceeds 
regularly,  requires  no  attention,  is  never  too  rapid,  and 
always  falls  to  zero  on  the  areometer  in  twenty,  or  at 
most  twenty-four  hours  It  is  then  ready  for  distillation, 


ALCOHOL.  151 

and  will  yield  eignt  litres  (one  and  three  fourths  gallons) 
alcohol  for  each  hundred  litres  (twenty -two  gallons)  juice 
at  10°  B. 

Prom  these  statements  it  would  appear  that,  however 
little  success  may  attend  the  attempt  to  produce  crystal- 
lized sugar  from  the  sorgho,  that  there  need  be  no  diffi- 
culty, at  all  events,  in  making  good  domestic  rum, 
alcohol,  and  other  kindred  products  from  its  juice.  The 
following  instructions  for  setting  a  vat  are  not,  however, 
to  be  taken  as  based  upon  the  result  of  my  own  expe- 
rience, for  as  yet  I  have  only  been  enabled  to  experiment 
upon  a  small  quantity  of  syrup,  which  was  over  a  year 
old,  badly  defecated  and  burned,  and  withal  considerably 
acid.  I  have  nevertheless  carefully  perused  the  reports 
of  the  French  operators^  and  extracted  what  I  considered 
best  from  each,  which  was  applicable  to  our  climate  and 
national  habits. 


TO  SET  A  VAT. 

If  the  farmer  be  manufacturing  syrup  from  his  cane, 
let  him  select  the  most  perfectly  ripened  and  healthy 
canes  for  this  purpose,  setting  aside  those  which  have 
only  partially  ripened,  or  have  been  frosted,  for  the 
manufacture  of  rum  or  alcohol ;  by  this  means,  and  sav- 
ing all  the  scum  of  the  pans  for  the  same  purpose,  he 
may  thus  be  enabled  to  use  all  his  product  to  advantage, 
and  waste  nothing. 

Supposing  him  to  have  determined  on  making  rum 
or  alcohol  only,  let  him  cut  his  canes,  grind  them,  and 
put  his  juice  into  a  pan  to  evaporate  slightly.  If  the  juice 


152  THE   CHINESE   SUGAR  CANE. 

marks  8°  B.  no  evaporation  need  take  place,  but  the  pau 
be  used  to  raise  the  temperature  of  the  liquid  to  say  80 3 
Fahrenheit,  then  discharge  the  contents  of  the  pan  or  pans 
into  a  vat  suited  to  the  quantity  the  farmer  desires  to' 
ferment,  fill  this  vat  to  within  a  foot  or  nine  inches  of  the 
top,  and,  if  you  can  get  it,  add  by  measure  one  gallon  of 
brewers'  yeast  to  every  hundred  gallons  in  the  vat,  first 
take  four  or  five  gallons  of  the  warm  juice,  mix  the  yeast 
well  up  in  it,  and  return  it  to  the  vat,  agitating  the  whole 
well  together.  In  a  couple  of  hours  or  so,  if  the  weather 
be  propitious,  the  contents  of  the  vat  will  seem  alive  or 
boiling,  owing  to  the  bubbles  of  gas  which  are  rising  to 
the  surface,  and  an  aromatic  flavor  will  begin  to  arise. 
The  vat  is  now  fermenting.  The  door  of  the  room  or 
shed  where  the  vat  or  vats  are  placed,  must  be  kept  shut 
or  open,  as  the  case  may  be,  so  as  to  keep  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  air  about  65°  or  70°.  In  winter  a  stove  will 
be  necessary,  for  if  the  juice  should  get  chilled,  in  all 
probability  it  would  stop  fermentation,  and  give  trouble. 
Examine  the  vat  from  time  to  time,  to  see  that  all  is 
going  on  well ;  in  twenty-four  hours  after  the  fermen- 
tation has  begun,  take  out  sufficient  to  float  Beaume's 
saccharometer,  and  insert  a  thermometer  in  the  vat 
You  will  find,  in  all  probability,  that  the  wash  has  be- 
come attenuated  to  a  certain  degree,  and  has  risen  in  tem- 
perature to  80°  or  82°.  That  which  yesterday  marked 
8°  B.  now  perhaps  marks  only  5°  or  4°  B.,  in  which 
case  you  may  be  sure  your  vat  is  progressing  as  it  ought 
to  do.  Had  you  set  your  wash  with  common  molasses, 
instead  of  sorgho,  it  would  not  have  attenuated  one 
degree  in  so  short  a  time,  and  rhe  fermentation  would 


ALCOHOL.  153 

only  be  commenced.  This  is  a  peculiarity  in  the  sorgho 
greatly  to  its  advantage  in  making  alcohol. 

Attenuation  is  the  term  applied  to  that  action  in  sac- 
charine fluid  mixtures  by  which  they  gradually  lose  part 
of  their  gravity  in  fermentation,  and  it  attains  perfection, 
if  the  wash  can  be  brought  to  the  same  specific  gravity, 
or  less,  than  water  itself.  Before  fermentation,  the  mix- 
ture being  much  heavier  than  water,  is  shown  by  the 
areometer.  This  change  in  density  is  owing  to  the  sugar, 
which  is  denser  than  water,  changing  into  alcohol, 
which  is  lighter ;  and  as  a  mixture  of  alcohol  with  water 
must,  from  the  difference  of  gravity  between  the  alcohol 
and  the  water,  render  a  given  bulk  of  such  mixture 
lighter  than  the  same  bulk  of  pure  water,  it  follows  that 
as  the  sugar  in  the  wash  changes  into  alcohol,  the  mass 
changes  its  gravity,  or  attenuates. 

In  forty- eight  hours,  in  warm  weather,  after  the  wash 
commences  to  ferment,  examine  it  by  pushing  the  head 
or  scum  on  one  side,  if  it  has  not  already  sunk  to  the 
bottom,  and  if  you  find  that  the  bubbles  cease  to  rise, 
and  that  the  temperature  has  gone  down  to  70°  or  75°,  get 
your  still  ready  and  distil  the  spirit  as  soon  as  possible. 
If  you  leave  it  twelve  hours  after  this,  the  vat  will  have 
commenced  the  acetic  fermentation,  and  be  in  process  of 
making  vinegar  at  the  expense  of  your  alcohol. 

Since  commencing  this  article  on  alcohol,  I  have  been 
enabled  to  test,  to  my  own  satisfaction,  the  capability  of 
sorgho  syrup,  even  in  an  advanced  state  of  acidity,  foi 
making  spirit.  The  quantity  experimented  upon  being 
small  was  against  the  success  of  the  operation,  especially 
in  the  fermentation.  Yet,  nevertheless  I  obtained  a 
7* 


154  THE   CHINESE   SUGAR  CANE. 

very  strong,  well-flavored  spirit,  infinitely  superior  to 
whiskey,  and  giving  evidence  that,  had  the  syrup  been 
fresh,  a  sorgho  brandy  would  have  been  made,  which 
would  have  compared  favorably  with  any  of  the  French 
brandies  in  quality.  I  am  not  aware  that  sorgho  spirit 
has  been  previously  made  in  America;  it  may,  there- 
fore, prove  interesting  to  give  the  details  of  my  experi- 
ment. 

On  Tuesday,  the  17th  of  August,  I  secured  from 
Mr.  H.  S.  Olcott  a  little  over  a  quart  of  sorgho  syrup, 
part  of  a  small  quantity  sent  to  him  by  Mr.  Peters, 
of  Georgia,  the  product  of  last  year's  experiment ;  it  was 
extremely  acid,  having  been  imperfectly  defecated  and 
clarified,  burned  in  the  boiling,  and  contained  much 
extraneous  matter ;  its  color  was  a  dirty  yellowish-brown, 
and  its  density,  by  Beaumd's  saccharometer,  was  35°. 

I  commenced  operations  upon  it  at  2  P.  M.,  on  the 
18th,  by  mixing  in  a  pail  five  quarts  of  water,  heated  to 
100°  Fahrenheit,  with  one  quart  of  the  syrup  ;  when  the 
mixture  was  effected,  the  temperature  of  the  whole  stood 
90°.  I  set  the  temperature  thus  high,  owing  to  the  small- 
ness  of  the  quantity,  being  doubtful  as  to  the  fermenta- 
tion proceeding  fast  enough.  I  also  made  the  density, 
which  was  9°,  one  or  two  degrees  higher  than  would  be 
necessary  in  larger  quantities.  Having  stirred  the  whole 
thoroughly,  I  took  out  a  small  portion  in  a  tumbler,  into 
which  I  put  one  quarter  of  a  pint  of  fresh  brewer's  yeast; 
this  I  beat  up  with  a  spoon,  and  when  well  mixed  I 
poured  it  into  the  pail  with  the  rest,  and  stirred  the  whole 
together.  The  temperature  of  the  room  being  75°,  I  left 
it  undisturbed  for  a  time.  On  examining  it  two  hours 


ALCOHOL.  155 

subsequently,  T  found  that  a  lively  fermentation  had  set 
in,  and  that  the  temperature  had  fallen  to  77° ;  at  ten 
P.M.  it  was  in  a  high  state  of  fermentation,  the  tempera- 
ture had  risen  2°,  and  the  wash  had  attenuated  1|° 
Beaume.  In  twenty -four  hours  from  the  time  of  starting, 
the  temperature  was  80°  F.,  and  the  density  4°  B.  In 
forty-two  hours  the  temperature  was  2°  lower,  the 
density  2°  B.,  and  the  fermentation  less  lively.  In 
forty-eight  hours  the  temperature  had  fallen  to  76°  F. 
Fermentation  had  almost  ceased,  and  the  wash  marked 
only  £°  Beaume",  which  was  a  very  good  attenuation 
under  the  circumstances. 

I  now  distilled  the  whole  in  a  small  copper  still,  a 
model  of  Figure  3  of  the  distillery  cuts.  The  foreshot,  or 
first  runnings,  I  set  aside  ;  as  also  the/amfc,  or  last  run- 
nings, the  balance — about  1-|-  pints — was  a  pleasant  aro- 
matic spirit,  resembling  brandy,  containing  55  per  cent, 
alcohol. 

This  distillation  having  been  made  in  nearly  a  simple 
still,  over  the  naked  fire,  was  the  severest  test  the  sorgho 
syrup  could  be  put  to ;  for  had  there  been  any  disagreea- 
ble peculiarities  inherent  in  it,  they  would  have  appeared 
in  the  spirit  run  in  this  way.  As  was  to  be  expected 
by  so  imperfect  a  process  of  distillation  as  the  simple  still 
and  worm  affords,  a  good  deal  of  essential  oil  came  over 
with  the  spirit,  as  well  as  water.  So  I  determined  to  re- 
distil the  1£  pints  at  a  low  heat,  in  order  to  see  what 
improvements  could  be  effected.  The  small  still  I  used 
being  intended  for  experiment,  was  so  arranged  as  to 
interpose,  when  required,  a  stratum  of  water  between 
the  fire  and  the  substance  under  distillation,  which,  by 


156  THE   CHINESE   SUGAR  CANE. 

this  means,  was  preserved  during  the  operation  at  a  tem- 
perature not  exceeding  212°. 

Having  filled  the  bath  of  the  still  with  water,  and 
urged  the  boiling,  the  spirit  soon  came  over ;  as  before, 
I  rejected  the  foreshot  and  faints,  in  this  case  returning 
the  foreshot  to  the  still ;  the  result  was  about  |  of  a  pint 
of  pure,  well  flavored  spirit,  of  72|°  strength. 

Such  results  are  encouraging  and  full  of  promise  for 
the  future ;  for  it  must  be  remembered  the  stock  in  this 
case  was  imperfectly  cured  to  begin  with  ;  had  been  kept 
in  a  demijohn  over  a  year  fermenting,  and  had  thus  lost 
part  of  its  alcohol  before  it  came  into  my  hands.  Yet, 
nevertheless,  I  will  venture  to  say,  that  the  spirit  pro- 
duced from  Mr.  Peters'  first  experiment  in  sorgho  syrup, 
will  rank  favorably  with  many  samples  of  spirit  in  the 
market. 

Having  got  so  far,  the  only  question  that  remains,  is 
the  important  one  of  apparatus.  Of  course,  the  size  must 
be  proportionate  to  the  quantity  of  brandy,  low  wines  or 
alcohol,  the  planter  intends  to  manufacture  ;  but,  as  many 
circumstances  have  got  to  be  considered  in  arranging  a 
distillery,  besides  the  mere  size  of  the  still,  I  would  recom- 
mend that  the  planter,  before  taking  steps  in  the  matter, 
state  his  case  to  some  competent  person  and  obtain  his 
advice. 

To  farmers  and  others,  who  do  not  intend  to  make  a 
regular  business  of  distilling,  except  at  times  when  no 
other  occupation  occurs,  as  in  winter,  I  would  recom- 
mend to  defecate  and  clarify  their  juice  as  directed  in  the 
chapter  on  syrup  and  sugar,  using,  say  two  pans, 
when  the  juice  is  well  cleaned.  Then  boil  down  to  35° 


ALCOHOL. 


157 


or  36°  B.,  allow  to  cool,  and  barrel  it  up  for  winter 
distillation;  the  juice  treated  in  this  way  will  keep  for 
years,  if  well  defecated  and  kept  in  a  cool  place.  The 
form  of  still  they  ought  to  use,  should  be  the  simple  still 
and  worm,  either  with  or  without  a  wash  heater.  The 
following  cuts  represent  the  common  still ;  Figure  1  in 
elevation,  Figure  2  in  section : 


Fif.J 


In  the  above  cut,  the  brick  work,  body  and  goose  neck 
of  the  still  are  shown.  L,  is  the  offshot  of  the  worm ; 
M,  the  worm  tub,  full  of  cold  water ;  it  should  have  a 
stream  of  water  supplied  to  it,  to  prevent  its  getting  too 
hot;  1ST,  is  the  drip  pipe  of  the  worm.  A  section  of  this 
form  of  still  is  shown  in  the  following  page,  at  Figure  2, 
of  which  A  is  the  body  of  the  still,  B  the  cap  or  capital, 


158 


THE  CHINESE  SUGAR  CANE. 


C  the  goose  neck,  leading  to  the  condenser  worm  D.  B 
is  the  discharge  cock  of  the  still,  F  the  brick  work,  Or  the 
opening  of  the  flue  into  the  furnace,  H  the  same  flue 
going  round  the  still,  I  the  furnace  bars,  J  the  ash  pit, 


Fiy.  j. 


ALCOHOL. 


159 


This 


and  K  the  charging  screw,  where  the  still  is  filled, 
still  makes  low  wines. 

By  adding  a  wash  heater  to  the  above,  a  great  saving 
in  time  and  fuel  is  effected,  besides,  a  purer  and  stronger 
spirit  is  obtained.  This  still  is  shown  at  Fig.  3,  page  158, 
of  which  A  is  the  still,  B  the  heater  of  the  wash  for  the 


160 


THE   CHINESE  SUGAR  CANE. 


next  charge,  and  C  the  worm.  To  operate  with  this 
still,  fill  the  still  through  the  heater,  and  then  fill  the 
heater.  When  the  charge  in  the  still  is  run  over,  draw 
off  the  spent  wash,  and  fill  up  again  from  the  heater. 

When  a  pure  spirit,  standing  80°  to  90 D,  is  wanted,  a 
still  like  Fig.  4,  on  page  159,  is  required ;  of  which  A  is  the 
still,  B  the  doubler,  C  the  heater,  D  the  check  cylinder, 
E  the  worm. 

Alcohol  95°  may  be  obtained  by  a  distillery  similar  to 


In  this  A  is  the  still,  B  the  heater,  with  a  pecuiar 
arrangement  inside,  C  the  doubler,  D  the  separator,  E 
the  pump  to  feed  the  heater  with  wash,  F  the  separator 
pipes,  G  the  drip  pipe,  H  a  thermometer  to  tell  tempera- 
ture of  wash. 

Where  the  quantity  of  sorgho  planted  is  large,  a  very 


ALCOHOL. 


161 


good  rum  or  low  wine  still  is  shown  at  Fig.  6,  together 
with  the  general  arrangement  of  the  still  house. 


A  is  the  mixing  tub,  B  the  pump  to  raise  the  wash  to 
the  gutter  C,  which  supplies  the  fermenting  vats  D.  E  is 
the  pipe  leading  from  the  vats  to  the  heater  shown  at  F, 
G-  is  the  still.  This  stil]  may  be  so  arranged  as  to  run 
very  strong  spirit. 
11 


162  THE   CHINESE  SUGAR  CANE. 

By  means  of  stills  without  columns  or  separators,  low 
wines  only  are  made  with,  advantage.  These  are  named 
in  contradiction  to  high  wines  above  65°. 

The  stills  hitherto  represented  have  been  of  the  inter- 
mittent kind,  but  in  the  cut  on  the  opposite  page  a  con- 
tinuous brandy  or  alcohol  distillery  is  shown.  These  stills 
have  a  continuous  stream  of  spent  wash  running  out  at 
the  bottom,  while  a  corresponding  stream  of  live  wash 
runs  in  at  the  top.  They  are  rather  expensive,  and  re- 
quire some  practice  to  operate. 

The  apparatus  represented  in  the  cut  is  on  the  princi- 
ple of  Durosne  &  Gail,  of  France,  who  got  it  up  some 
years  ago  for  the  purpose  of  distilling  brandy  from  wine. 
It  is  extensively  used  in  France,  and  there  are  a  few  in 
use  in  the  United  States.  I  refrain  from  any  description^ 
of  this  still,  as  it  would  be  too  tedious,  and  perhaps,  after 
all,  prove  incomprehensible  in  mere  words.  Suffice  it  to 
say  that  it  yields  a  pure  spirit,  and  of  any  required  proof 
under  95°. 

To  planters  and  farmers,  many  of  whom  will  doubtless 
this  year  order  distilleries  and  other  apparatus  for  their 
various  operations  on  sugar,  I  would  advise  that  they 
stipulate  beforehand  with  the  manufacturer,  for  a  full 
written  description  of  the  proper  mode  of  erecting  and 
working  each  apparatus,  otherwise  there  will  be  trouble 
and  expense  before  it  is  finished. 

One  half  of  the  failures  in  apparatus  on  sugar  estates, 
are  owing  in  tbe  first  place,  to  the  mechanic  who  under- 
takes to  make  a  machine  or  a  distillery,  while,  in  the 
meantime,  he  is  ignorant  of  the  first  principles  of  the  pur- 
pose to  whi?h  such  still  or  machine  is  to  be  applied ;  and 


ALCOHOL. 


163 


Fig. 7 


164  THE   CHINESE   SUGAR   CANE. 

in  the  second  place,  it  is  due  to  the  person  giving  the 
order,  who,  probably,  is  little  able  or  willing  to  enlighten 
him  :  in  either  case  dissatisfaction  and  loss  is  the  result. 

In  the  manufacture  of  alcohols  from  the  sorgho  for  the 
market,  it  is  well  for  the  farmer  to  know  what  is  required, 
as  regards  strength  and  quality,  so  as  to  be  guided  in 
making  an  article  which  will  find  ready  sale ;  and  first 
and  foremost,  doubtless,  he  would  like  to  know  what  is 
considered  the  market  proof  of  spirits  in  America.  By 
proof  is  meant  the  strength  in  alcohol  which  a  liquor  in- 
dicates on  the  areometer,  and  is  derived  from  the  English 
excisemen,  who  proved  each  cask  as  it  came  from  the  dis- 
tiller or  importer,  levying  a  heavy  duty  per  gallon  on 
the  amount  of  alcohol  contained ;  when  it  passed  the 
officer's  hands,  he  gave  a  certificate  of  its  strength,  which 
was  proof  to  the  customer,  the  bung  being  sealed  up  and 
stamped. 

In  America  usage  has  designated  a  certain  per  centage 
of  alcohol  in  liquors,  as  the  standard  strength  on  which 
the  price  is  to  be  calculated,  and  according  as  the  per- 
centages exceed  or  fall  short  of  this,  the  spirit  is  above  or 
below  proof.  This  standard  is  composed  of  one  half 
water  and  one  half  spirit,  marking  50°  on  the  guage  or 
areometer,  at  the  temperature  of  60°  Fahrenheit. 

Of  course,  if  the  farmer  be  far  from  his  market,  the 
less  water  he  transport  in  his  casks  the  better,  and  he 
ought  in  this  case  to  make  high  wines  or  alcohol,  now  so 
much  used  for  camphene,  £c.,  whilst  the  one  who  is  under 
less  charges  for  transportation,  may  be  guided  by  the 
demand,  whether  it  shall  be  low  wines,  high  wines,  alco- 
hol, brandy,  or  rum  that  he  produces  from  his  juice — all 


ALCOHOL.  165 

these  various  liquors  being  merely  the  result  of  a  little 
difference  in  the  mqde  of  fermentation  and.  distillation. 

Before  taking  leave  of  the  subject,  I  would  state  that 
the  sample  of  Mr.  Peters'  syrup,  referred  to  before,  on 
being  offered  in  the  market  as  rum,  was  appraised  at  90 
cents  to  $1  a  gallon,  Porto  Eico  rum  being  worth  $1  10. 
In  the  shape  of  brandy,  $1  to  $1  50  was  offered,  while  in 
the  shape  of  95°,  alcohol,  65  cents  was  the  price. 

Now,  the  farmer,  so  soon  as  he  knows  what  it  costs 
him  to  make  a  gallon  of  syrup,  can  tell  at  once  what  these 
prices  indicate  in  the  shape  of  profit,  by  adding  eight 
cents  per  gallon,  which  is  an  over  estimate  of  the  cost  of 
conversion  into  spirit.  Supposing  him  to  obtain  only 
200  gallons,  whereas  he  ought  to  get  400  gallons  syrup 
per  acre,  and  it  costs  him  fifteen  cents  per  gallon  to  make 
it,  his  brandy  would  stand  him  in  twenty-three  cents, 
and  be  a  purer  and  more  -wholesome  article  than  most  of 
the  trash  palmed  off  upon  us  as  French  cognac. 

Say,  200  gallons  syrup,  per  acre,  15  c.,       $30  00 
Cost  to  ferment  and  distil,  8  c.,  .        16  00 


$4600 
Eeturns— 200  gallons  proof  brandy,  at  $1,      200  00 


Profit  per  acre,  .  .     $15400 

Besides  fodder  and  seed,  worth,  say,         .        50  00 

Net  profit,       .  .  .     $204  00 

On  reading  over  the  foregoing,  I  see  that  I  have  omitted 
mention  of  the  means  by  which,  in  the  absence  of  yeast, 
fermentation  may  be  induced  in  the  wash,  or  preserved 


166  THE   CHINESE   SUGAR  CANE. 

from  year  to  year,  as  also  the  use  to  which  the  spent  wash 
may  be  applied  where  water  is  scarce,  or  at  a  distance. 

As  a  general  thing,  well  water,  if  good,  is  better  than 
river  water  for  mixing  with  syrup,  or  other  substances  to 
be  fermented,  inasmuch  as  it  holds  in  solution  less  vege- 
table matter.  Spring  water,  which  has  lime  in  solution, 
is  very  good,  provided  it  does  not  contain  other  minerals 
unsuitable  for  the  purpose.  Trial  in  every  case  can 
alone  settle  this  authoritatively. 

If  the  reports  of  the  French  chemists  apply  to  the 
sorgho  of  this  country,  there  need  be  no  anxiety  as  to 
the  success  of  its  fermentation,  possessing,  as  it  does,  a 
strong  tendency  towards  alcohol  even  unaided.  In  all 
cases,  however,  I  would  add  to  the  vat,  as  directed,  one 
quarter  per  cent,  of  fresh  crushed  canes  as  a  ferment. 
This,  as  in  the  case  of  grape  stalks  on  wine,  secures  the 
result.  If  a  brewery  be  near,'  by  all  means  get  fresh 
yeast  from  that. 

After  one  vat  or  cask  has  been  put  into  fermentation, 
it  will  be  easy  to  inoculate  all  the  others  from  it,  for  on 
the  bottom  will  be  found,  on  drawing  off,  a  grayish  sub- 
stance, which  will  induce  fermentation  wherever  it  is 
applied  to  saccharine  solutions. 

By  many,  the  best  flavors  of  the  West  India  rums  are 
attributed  to  the  mixture  with  the  wash  of  a  certain 
amount  of  spent  wash  of  previous  distillations ;  this  is 
done  generally  in  the  proportion  of  one  third  or  fourth ; 
and  in  case  this  plan  be  found  favorable  to  the  sorgho,  I 
will  give  a  few  simple  directions  on  this  head,  which 
may  be  varied  as  experience  dictates,  when  sorgho  dis- 
tillation has  become  an  institution  among  ns. 


ALCOHOL.  167 

The  scum  of  the  sugar  train,  during  crop,  is  used  to 
mix  in  the  vats,  six  gallons  of  scum,  being  considered 
equal  to  one  gallon  of  syrup  or  molasses.  Twelve  or 
fifteen  per  cent,  of  saccharine  matters,  whether  of  scum 
or  syrup,  is  a  common  mixture,  as,  for  instance,  eighteen 
gallons  scum,  ten  gallons  syrup,  thirty-six  gallons  spent 
wash,  and  thirty-nine  gallons  water,  will  do  very  well ; 
say  thirteen  per  cent,  of  saccharine,  or  twelve  gallons 
syrup,  may  be  used,  so  as  to  make  fifteen  per  cent,  sac- 
charine. 

When  the  planter  has  got  through  with  his  distillation 
for  the  year,  he  leaves  his  vats  fall  of  spent  wash,  in  order 
to  prevent  their  leaking,  as  well  also  as  to  preserve  the 
fermenting  principle  which  the  wash  acquires  before  next 
season.  After  standing  a  short  time,  the  wash  throws  to 
the  surface  a  thick  crust  or  scum,  which  protects  it  from 
the  air,  leaving  the  fluid  underneath  clear  as  sherry  wine. 
This  method  I  would  advise  our  farmers  or  planters  to 
adopt  with  their  vats  for  sorgho,  or  wash  them  well 
with  lime,  and  fill  with  pure  water,  which,  if  followed 
with  the  other  suggestions  I  have  given,  will  no  doubt 
place  us  in  a  better  position  as  regards  alcohols  than  any 
other  country  in  the  world,  inasmuch  as,  for  the  produc- 
tion of  alcohol  at  all  events,  the  sorgho  will  become  suf- 
ficiently ripe  throughout  the  Union,  from  Maine  to  Texas, 
and  thus  give  us  unrivaled  facilities,  not  only  for  sup- 
plying our  own  markets,  but  those  of  the  world,  with  this 
useful  solvent. 

For  the  preceding  remarks  on  alcohol,  I  am  indebted 
to  the  same  gentleman  who  furnished  the  illustrations 
and  descriptions  of  sugar-making.  He,  as  well  as  my- 


168  THE   CHINESE   SUGAR   CANE. 

self,  takes  great  interest  in  the  development  of  our  new 
plant,  which,  both  as  fodder,  cereal,  saccharine,  spirit, 
beer,  and  wine,  seems  destined  to  add  so  largely  to  our 
wealth  as  a  nation. 


DESCRIPTION  OF  GROUND  PLAN. 
See  p.  112. 

IN  the  cut  representing  the  plan  of  a  sugar  house,  A  represents  the 
steam  boilers  outside  of  the  building  ;  B  the  cane  shed,  built  of  brick 
or  stone,  with  wide  archways  ;  C,  the  mill-house,  having  two  floors, 
the  mill  on  second  floor  ;  D,  the  boiling-houses,  with  two  trains,  and  a 
small  office  which  overlooks  both  the  mill  and  boiling  houses ;  E,  the 
cooling  house  ;  and  F  the  purgery.  These  two  latter  are  in  a  separate 
building  connected  by  a  railroad,  both  to  avoid  risk  of  fire  and  admit 
of  being  kept  locked  up  to  prevent  pilfering.  G  is  the  distillery,  about 
one  hundred  yards  removed  from  the  other  buildings. 

a  shows  the  cane  carrier  ;  b  the  mill  and  engine  on  the  second  floor, 
supported  on  solid  masonry  ;  c  a  shute  which  takes  the  place  of  the 
bagasse  carrier,  and  delivers  the  crushed  canes  into  a  mule  cart  under- 
neath, outside ;  d  are  juice  tanks,  to  receive  juice  from  mill ;  e  are 
oblong  defecators  attached  to  the  trains ;  /  are  the  trains  of  pans ;  g 
railroads  to  carry  the  syrup  to  the  coolers,  and  the  sugar  from  coolers 
to  purgery ;  k  are  the  coolers  ;  i  are  the  alley  ways,  level  with  furnace 
mouths  ;  k,  furnace  mouths ;  I,  sugar  hogsheads  in  purgery. 


CHAPTEE    VIII. 

VINEGAK. 

Like  all  other  saccharine  juices,  the  sap  of  the  sorgho, 
raw,  and  the  wines  and  cider  made  from  it,  will  rapidly 
pass  into  the  acetous  fermentation.  As  soon  as  the  cut 
end  of  the  stalk  is  exposed  to  the  atmosphere,  the  oxygen 
attacks  it,  and  the  fermentation  commences.  I  have 
found  the  sap  of  stalks  which  had  lain  in  stack  on  our 
place  for  two  months,  to  be  as  acid  as  the  best  vinegar, 
and  although  I  have  had  no  personal  experience  in  vine- 
gar manufacture,  I  still  should  not  be  afraid  to  testify, 
with  no  other  facts  corroborative,  that  the  sorgho  is  a 
vinegar-producing  plant. 

The  Count  Moigneric,  says  Dr.  Turrel  in  the  Imperial 
Society's  Bulletin,  of  September,  1856,  made  vinegar  by 
watering  the  bagasse,  already  crushed,  with  fresh  juice 
of  the  sorgho.  He  obtained  the  acetous  fermentation 
and  a  perfect  vinegar. 

Mr.  D.  Jay  Browne,  in  his  remarks  before  the  United 
States  Agricultural  Society,  said  that  he  believed  fifteen 
hundred  gallons  of  vinegar  could  be  made  per  acre  from 
the  sorgho.  He  had  a  specimen  at  his  house  in  Washing- 
ton, and  pronounced  it  very  good. 

Lacoste  says  likewise  at  page  forty -four  of  his  book, 

"that  the  juice  of  the  sugar  sorgho  submitted  to  the 

acetous  fermentation,  will  produce  vinegar  of  excellent 

quality;  and  it  will  also  be  profitable  to  submit  to  this 

8  [1G9] 


170  THE  CHINESE  SUGAR  CANE. 

transformation  the  weaker  alcohols  arising  from  the  final 
distillations." 

The  methods  for  the  production  of  vinegar  are  so 
simple,  as  to  be  familiar  with  almost  every  one  of  my 
readers,  and  it  will,  consequently,  be  useless  to  occupy 
much  space  in  detailing  them  at  length.  I  would  simply 
recommend  that  the  practice  usually  employed  in  treating 
the  juice  of  apples,  of  the  sugar  maple,  and  the  various 
other  saccharine  fluids  commonly  employed  for  the  manu- 
facture of  vinegar,  be  applied  to  the  juices  of  the  sorgho 
and  imphee  as  they  come  from  the  mill. 

Sicard  says  that  he  has  been  in  the  custom  of  making 
vinegar  of  the  knots  of  the  cane  stalks,  and  of  addi  ng  to 
them  such  canes  as  were  more  or  less  spoiled.  His  pro- 
cess is  extremely  simple,  and  is  as  follows : 

"  Bruise  the  pieces  in  the  mill,  put  them  in  contact  with 
a  sufficient  quantity  of  water  to  cover  them  a  few  inches, 
let  them  ferment  then  all  alone  until  the  liquid  has  ac- 
quired the  qualities  desired  for  good  vinegar.  It  is  in- 
dispensable to  draw  this  vinegar  off  once  or  twice,  with  a 
view  to  removing  from  it  all  foreign  substances."  He 
says  that  his  vinegar  is  of  a  yellowish  white  color,  and  of 
a  very  agreeable  acidity.  He  has  sometimes  allowed  the 
knots  to  ferment  before  covering  them  with  water,  and  in 
this  way  "has  obtained  a  vinegar  very  deeply  colored. 
For  the  purpose  of  making  vinegar,  he  has  likewise  made 
use  of  the  cider  or  piquette  of  the  sorgho,  by  adding  to  it 
a  slight  quantity  of  tartaric  acid.  He  says  vinegar  can 
likewise  be  obtained  by  putting  into  a  barrel  the  residue 
of  canes  from  which  the  juice  has  been  extracted  for  the 
manufacture  either  of  sugar  or  alcohol.  In  this  case  he 


VINEGAR.  171 

left  them  without  disturbance  until  they  had  acquired  a 
heat,  of  which  he  was  made  sensible  by  putting  the  hand 
in  the  mess ;  he  then  added  to  it  water,  and  let  it  ferment 
as  before  mentioned. 


STARCH  OP  THE  SEEft 

The  consumption  of  starch  in  the  United  States,  at  all 
times  large,  has  recently  increased,  owing  to  causes, 
among  which  may  be  enumerated  the  present  universally 
prevalent  custom  of  our  females  wearing  stiff  skirts  ;  and 
much  more  starch  is  eaten  than  formerly,  prepared  in 
various  forms  for  the  table,  such  as  starch,  farina,  tapioca, 
&c.  The  seed,  deprived  of  its  envelope,  has  been  sub- 
mitted to  numerous  experiments  by  Mr.  Wray,  Count 
Beauregard,  Dr.  Sicard  and  others,  chemists  and  amateurs, 
and  has  been  found  to  yield  forty -five  per  cent,  of  pure 
starch  of  very  excellent  quality.  In  fact,  it  only  needs  for  a 
person  to  cut  in  two  a  fully  matured  seed,  to  be  convinced 
of  the  possibility  of  causing  starch  manufacturers  to  be 
considerably  interested  in  this  plant,  when  the  area  under 
cultivation  shall  be  such  as  to  bring  down  the  prices  of 
the  seed  to  a  moderate  rate.  On  taking  off  the  outside 
envelope  of  the  seed,  the  one  in  which  is  contained  a 
very  deep  purple  dye  tint,  we  see  adhering  to  the  starchy 
matter,  another  of  a  clear  brown  color,  and  somewhat 
unctuous  to  the  touch.  So  intimately  is  it  a  part  of  the 
composition  of  the  seed  proper,  that  we  anticipate  an  im- 
possibility to  separate  it,  except  by  the  process  applied  to 
barley,  which  is  known  as  pearling,  and  in  this  way  the 
desired  result  will  be  easily  attained.  What  will  be  a 


172  THE  CHINESE  SUGAR  CANE. 

cheap  and  expeditions  method  for  removing  the  seed 
hulls,  we  cannot  at  present  say.  If  it  can  be  shown  that 
the  hulls,  are  valuable  for  the  dyes  which  they  will  yield, 
ingenuity  at  once  will  be  stimulated  to  produce  a  hulling 
machine ;  and  if,  as  we  think  very  probable,  it  shall  be 
found  the  starch  of  the  seed  can  be  readily  made  use  of,  then 
again  the  same  causes  in  operation  will  demand  such  a 
machine.  But,  at  present,  Dr.  Sicard  has  made  his  ex- 
periments, as  I  have  made  my  own  with  the  hulls,  by 
rubbing  the  seeds  together  in  such  a  manner  as  to  cause 
the  hulls  to  separate  of  their  own  accord.  Dr.  Sicard 
made  an  experiment  with  about  175  Ibs.  of  the  seed  to 
determine  the  proportions  of  coarse  bran,  middlings,  and 
fine  flour,  and  obtained  thirty -three  pounds  of  each  of  the 
two  former,  and  about  ninety-five  pounds  of  the  latter. 
The  coarse  bran  and  middlings  were  both  of  a  violet  tint, 
arising  from  the  coloring  matter  impregnating  the  outer 
lining  of  the  hull.  The  fine  flour  itself  offered  to  the  eye 
an  appearance  of  violet  slightly  bordering  upon  a  rose 
color,  and  even  after  having  been  passed  through  a  silken 
sieve,  was  still  of  a  very  pale  rose  color.  To  assure  him- 
self that  the  coloring  matter  which  thus  tinted  the  fine 
flour  was  merely  contained  in  the  outside  covering  of  the 
seed,  he  undertook  very  minute  experiments,  completely 
removing  all  the  hull  and  the  two  successive  interior 
coatings  before  passing  the  seed  through  the  mill,  and 
even  made  use  of  chemical  agents  to  remove  the  color. 
The  result,  it  is  true,  was  the  production  of  a  starch  of 
very  brilliant  whiteness,  but  his  experiments  proved  to 
my  mind  that  the  production  of  pure  white  starch  will 
be  a  matter  of  considerable  difficulty.  It  will  have  a  pale 


VINEGAR.  173 

rose  color,  which  may,  or  may  not,  militate  against  its 
general  introduction.  He  made  from  the  starch  at  diffe- 
rent times  bread  and  cakes,  and  in  the  different  cases 
varied  success,  some  being  palatable  and  others  not. 
The  flour  of  the  sorgho  is  of  an  inferior  quality  as  com- 
pared with  wheat  flour,  and  others  of  the  finer  grains, 
and  any  mixture  of  that  with  wheat  flour  is  a  fraud  upon 
the  stomach,  giving  a  quantity  of  inferior  aliment  with 
an  accompaning  bribe  of  a  better  one,  as  quack  physicians 
will  make  palatable  to  their  patients  nauseous  pills  by 
surrounding  them  with  a  coating  of  sugar.  In  speaking, 
however,  of  starch  and  the  various  forms  of  food  to  be 
made  from  the  Chinese  Sugar  Cane,  I  would  not  be 
understood  as  embracing  in  the  same  category  those 
which  the  imphee  may  furnish,  for,  because  of  the  absence 
of  any  coloring  matter  from  its  hull,  the  peculiar  plump- 
ness of  the  seed,  and  the  large  quantity  of  starch  found  to 
be  present,  I  have  reason  to  believe  that  it  will  indeed 
be  a  valuable  acquisition,  and  its  culture  be  duly  under- 
taken with  this  simple  object  in  view.  Be  that  as  it  may, 
we  cannot  alter  the  composition  of  the  starch,  nor  of  the 
other  components  of  the  sugar.  Whither  tinted  rose 
color,  or  as  white  as  the  driven  snow,  it  still  will  have  its 
own  unchanging  proportions  of  carbon,  oxygen,  and  hy- 
drogen, which  will  represent  a  certain  nutritive  value,  and 
for  animals  it  cannot  but  prove,  as  indeed  experience  has 
already  proved  it  to  be,  a  very  excellent  fodder  crop. 

Madinier  says,  at  page  10,  that  the  seed  contains  10  to 
12  per  cent,  of  nitrogenous  matter — gluten — and  about 
60  per  cent,  of  starch,  which  would  make  it,  so  far  as  the 
proportions  of  nitrogen  are  concerned,  to  resemble  our 


174  THE  CHINESE   SUGAR  CANE. 

common  corn;  but  where  lie  obtained  his  analysis,  I  am 
not  informed.  He  says  that  the  real  use  of  the  sorgho 
is  not  for  bread-making,  but  it  should  be  eaten  on  the 
farm  in  the  form  of  broth  and  soups  for  the  laborer,  or  to 
be  boiled  up  in  quantities  and  given  for  fattening  pigs 
and  cattle. 

DYE  STUPFS. 

Previous  to  the  receipt  of  the  pamphlets  from  Messrs. 
Hedges,  Free,  &  Co.,  which  were  sent  to  them  by  his 
Excellency  our  Minister  at  Paris,  I  had  seen  in  my  re- 
searches after  the  facts  collated  by  French  experimenters 
and  published  in  the  French  journals,  occasional  mention 
of  the  experiments  of  Dr.  Sicard  of  Marseilles,  in  pro- 
curing from  the  hulls  of  the  seed  a  tint  for  dyeing ;  but 
not  the  slightest  clue  was  given  as  to  how  the  dye  was 
produced.  Thinking  it  an  interesting  aspect  of  the 
sorgho  culture,  I  was  anxious  to  duplicate,  if  possible, 
his  success ;  and  to  this  end  made  various  laboratory 
experiments  with  alcohol,  sulphuric  ether,  the  various 
acids,  boiling  the  hulls  in  a  retort  with  oxalic  acid, 
muriate  of  tin,  alum,  dilate  acids,  and  plain  water,  and 
obtained  a  number  of  tints  of  greater  or  less  brilliancy. 
Of  these  one  was  a  deep  purple,  obtained  by  simply 
boiling  the  hulls  in  pure  water  for  about  fifteen  minutes  ; 
another,  a  beautiful  rose  colored  fluid,  was  made  by 
boiling  the  hulls  of  another  sample  (received  from 
France)  in  very  dilute  sulphuric  acid,  a  few  drops  of  the 
acid  to  a  pint  of  water  being  sufficient.  And,  by  dropping 
into  the  pure  water  in  which  the  hulls  were  being  boiled 


VINEGAR.  175 

a  few  drops  of  nitric,  muriatic,  or  acetic  acids,  as  the  case 
might  be,  I  obtained  different  shades  of  red.  I  inserted 
in  the  liquid  strips  of  cotton  and  silk  fabrics,  and  set 
them  with  alum.  In  one  case,  I  took  a  piece  of  white 
ribbon,  and  by  boiling  it  in  the  tinted  solution  for  a  few 
moments,  obtained  a  very  deep  color.  In  another  case, 
in  a  weaker  solution,  a  ribbon  was  colored  pink.  Being 
entirely  unacquainted  with  the  principles  of  dyeing,  of 
course  my  experiments  were  but  imperfect,  and  were 
useful  only  as  proving  the  fact,  that  in  the  hulls  was 
actually  contained  a  tint,  which  might  be  very  easily 
separated.  They  led  me  to  believe  that,  under  proper 
circumstances,  this  dye  could  be  extracted  and  made  into 
pigments  with  profit. 

In  Dr.  Sicard's  "  Monograph  of  the  Chinese  Sugar 
Cane,"  he  has  introduced  a  specimen  of  twenty-one  colors 
obtained  by  him  from  the  seed,  and  for  which  he  has 
received  letters  patent.  They  range  through  all  tints, 
from  a  light  buff  to  a  very  deep  purple,  but  do  not,  of 
course,  present  the  brilliancy  which  they  do  when  repro- 
duced on  different  fabrics.  "  In  fact,"  as  he  says  himself 
in  his  Postscript,  "  it  would  be  difficult,  by  these  speci- 
mens, to  give  the  slightest  idea  of  the  beauty  of  the  tints 
which  may  be  obtained  on  silk,  woollen,  or  cotton 
stuff.  The  first  substance  has  especially  a  very  great 
affinity  for  the  coloring  matters  obtained  from  the  plant 
which  has  occupied  our  attention;  but  if  silk  has  more 
affinity  for  all  the  colors  in  general,  there  are  others 
which  show  remarkable  beauty  on  woollen  and  cotton 
stuffs.  The  coloring  principles  which  we  have  obtained 
are  to  the  number  of  nine,  entirely  independent  from 


176  THE   CHINESE  STJGAK  CANE. 

each  other,  and  capable  of  giving  colored  salts  perfectly 
crystallized.  By  combining  our  coloring  principles  with 
different  chemical  substances,  there  are  obtained  not  only 
a  number  of  known  colors,  but,  furthermore,  tints  on  the 
stuffs  which  are  unknown  in  Prance,  and  like  which  we 
have  no  specimens  except  the  beautiful  embroideries 
which  we  receive  from  China.  We  sincerely  hope  that 
the  Government,  comprehending  all  the  importance  of 
these  discoveries,  shall  publish  the  results  obtained.  It 
is  impossible  that  a  plant  which,  in  the  hands  of  a  single 
individual,  has  given  results  so  extraordinary  and  so 
varied,  should  not  be  called  to  play  a  great  part  in  all 
branches  of  industry." 

I  translate  as  follows  the  account  of  his  curious 
researches :  "  The  hulls  which  envelope  the  seeds 
of  the  sorgho  are  tinted  with  a  reddish  brown  so 
deeply  that  they  appear  black.  The  tint  is  due  to  a 
complex  coloring  matter  condensed  in  this  part  of  the 
seed,  but  which  also  exists  in  the  radicular  fibers  at  their 
origin,  and  in  the  young  suckers.  This  coloring  matter 
is  insoluble  in  cold  water.  Boiling  water  dissolves  it, 
with  a  red  violet  color.  Alcohol,  even  cold,  takes  it  from 
the  hulls,  and  becomes  colored  with  a  deep  red.  Ether 
dissolves  it,  and  takes  on  a  bright  red  tint.  A  boiling 
solution  of  alum  takes  on  a  reddish  lilac  color.  Concen- 
trated sulphuric  acid  dissolves  it  with  a  deep  reddish 
color ;  chlorohydric  acid  with  a  reddish  orange  color ; 
the  alkalies  with  a  brown. 

"  The  acid  solutions  in  water,  caused  to  precipitate  a 
substance  of  a  deep  reddish  brown  tint.  Alkaline  solu- 
tions precipitated  by  acids  brown  flakes,  which  redden 


VINEGAR.  177 

upon  repeated  washings.  The  supernatant  fluids  are 
yellow.  The  alcoholic  tincture  evaporated,  gives  crys- 
talline scales,  which  seem  black  when  viewed  in  a  mass, 
and  that  a  fatty  substance  renders  brilliant ;  the  liquor 
and  the  waters  from  the  washings  are  of  a  yellow  color. 

"Tincture  of  ether  gives,  likewise,  by  evaporation  and 
an  addition  of  water,  a  red  precipitate,  upon  which  floats 
a  yellow  liquor. 

"  There  are,  then,  in  the  hulls  of  the  sorgho,  two  color- 
ing principles ;  the  one  red,  slightly  soluble  in  water, 
and  soluble  in  alcohol,  ether,  the  acids,  and  alkalies; 
the  other,  yellow,  very  soluble  in  water,  and  in  the 
other  solvents,  which  is  not  precipitable  from  its  solu- 
tions like  the  red  matter. 

"  The  red  matter,  which  we  may  call  purpurholcine, 
presents  itself  under  the  form  of  a  reddish  violet  powder, 
so  deep  in  color  that  it  appears  black ;  it  has  no  smell ; 
its  taste  (very  weak)  is  a  little  bitter  and  astringent. 
Heated  in  a  closed  tube  it  does  not  volatilize,  but  gives 
empyreumatic  vapors,  which  condense  themselves  into 
yellow  oily  drops.  In  presence  of  potashed  lime  it 
gives,  under  the  influence  of  heat,  alkaline  vapors.  It 
is  then  an  azotized  substance,  and  of  which  we  will, 
further  on,  determine  the  atomic  composition.  The  pur- 
purholcine  is  but  little  soluble  in  water,  but  dissolves 
readily  in  boiling  water,  in  alcohol,  cold  and  warm,  and 
in  ether,  with  a  reddish  color ;  sulphuric  acid  and  chlo- 
rohydric  acid  dissolve  it  with  an  orange  color.  Potash, 
ammonia,  lime  water,  and  the  water  of  baryta,  communi- 
cate to  it  an  intense  color ;  alum,  a  red  violet.  It  is  not 
soluble  in  fixed  oils ;  it  can  be  prepared  by  several  pro- 


178  THE   CHINESE   SUGAR  CANE. 

cesses.  First,  treat  the  seeds  with  concentrated  sulphuric 
acid ;  allow  them  to  remain  in  contact  with  it  one  or  two 
days ;  then  it  is  mixed  in  a  large  quantity  of  water ;  the 
whole  is  thrown  upon  a  filter  and  washed  until  the 
liquor  is  no  longer  acid ;  the  carbon  which  remains  upon 
the  filter,  mixed  with  the  coloring  matter,  is  treated  by 
warm  alcohol,  and  gives  a  tint,  which  it  is  only  neces- 
sary to  distill,  and  add  to  it  water,  to  obtain  the  purpur- 
holcine,  in  brilliant  scales,  tinged  with  a  little  fatty  mat- 
ter. The  liquid  retains  the  yellow  substances,  and  a 
little  of  the  purpurholcine. 

"  Second :  The  seeds  can  be  treated  directly  by  alcohol 
and  operated  with,  as  above  given  for  the  alcoholic 
tincture ;  ether  conduces  to  the  same  effect. 

"  Third :  We  can  furthermore  employ  a  solution  of  pot- 
ash ;  it  makes  a  brown  magma,  which  is  to  be  filtered ; 
and  in  the  liquor  put  with  care  some  chlorohydric  acid; 
brown  flakes  are  precipitated,  upon  which  will  float  a 
yellow  liquid.  These  are  to  be  separated,  washed  well, 
redissolved  in  alcohol,  and  the  latter  gives,  by  evapora- 
tion, the  purpurholcine. 

"Uses:  This  coloring  matter  can  be  used  for  dyeing. 
By  varying  the  dissolvents  and  the  mordants,  are  ob- 
tained, upon  cotton,  woolen,  and  especially  upon  silk 
stuffs,  beautiful  tints,  which  vary  as  much  as  can  be  de- 
sired in  the  browns,  the  grays,  the  reds,  the  oranges, 
and  lilacs.  Our  conviction,  in  this  respect,  is  based 
upon  dyeing  experiments,  on  a  small  scale. 

"  The  yellow  matter,  which  we  shall  call  xantholcine,  is 
very  soluble  in  water,  either  cold  or  warm.  Soluble  in 
acids,  which  cause  it  to  become  an  orange  yellow ;  the 


VINEGAE.  179 

alkalies  preserve  its  colors.  It  forms  with  different 
metallic  oxides,  red  and  orange  lakes. 

"  The  stuffs,  with  the  use  of  mordants,  take  on  various 
tints  of  yellow  and  of  orange,  brown,  and  rose  color  It 
is  obtained  at  the  same  time  as  the  red  matter,  and  re- 
mains in  solution  in  the  different  liquids  where  the 
purpurholcine  is  precipitated ;  but  it  is  not  pure,  and  is 
mixed  with  the  red  matter.  The  best  process  to  isolate 
it,  is  to  make  use  of  potash.  It  can  be  purified,  by 
making  use  of  the  process  indicated  by  Kullmann,  for 
the  yellow  matter  of  the  madder  which  this  chemist  has 
named  Xanthine.  Thus  the  seeds  of  the  sorgho  contain 
two  coloring  matters,  which  applied  to  dyeing,  can  re- 
place madder  and  give  all  the  shades  which  are  ob- 
tained from  the  roots  of  this  plant.  The  purpurhol- 
cine  differs  from  the  red  matters  of  the  madder  by  its 
non-volatility.  The  Xantholcine  seems  identical  with 
the  Xanthine." 

Dr.  Sicard's  process  having  been  made  public,  has 
created  considerable  interest  in  the  city  of  Lyons  among 
the  large  silk  manufacturers,  and  experiments  are  being 
made  to  test  the  value  of  his  coloring  matters,  the  result 
of  which  will  settle  the  question  as  to  its  practical 
utility. 


CEROSIE  ;  OR,  THE  VEGETABLE  WAX  ON  THE  STALKS  OP  THE 
SORGHO. 

In  a  previous  place,  I  mentioned  that  as  the  plant  ap- 
proaches maturity,  a  white  efflorescence  makes  its  ap- 
pearance upon  the  outside  of  the  stalks,  accumulating, 


180  THE  CHINESE  SUGAR  CANE. 

in  the  greatest  proportion,  under  the  footstalks  of  the 
leaves.  This  vegetable  wax — cerosie,  the  French  call 
it — is  similar  in  its  composition  to  the  wax  produced  by 
bees ;  it  is,  however,  dry,  hard,  and  may  be  pulverized ; 
fusible  at  90°,  and  if  mixed  with  purified  tallow,  and 
made  into  candles,  burns  with  a  clear  brilliant  light.  It 
is  employed  for  this  purpose  by  the  inhabitants  of 
the  north  of  China.  Mr.  Hardy,  the  Director  of  the 
Government  Nursery  in  Algiers,  makes  a  calculation  as 
to  its  value  per  acre,  by  which  he  shows  a  net  profit  of 
thirty-six  dollars,  to  be  added  to  the  other  profits  given 
by  the  cultivation  of  the  sorgho ;  but  I  do  not  see  how 
we  can,  for  a  moment,  adopt  these  views  as  applicable  to 
our  conditions  of  climate  and  prices  of  labor.  In  Algiers, 
Mr.  Hardy  could  secure  the  service  of  Arab  boys  and 
women  at  a  very  low  price;  and  in  China,  the  labor  of 
a  man  is  remunerated  with  only  a  few  cents  per  day ; 
but  in  our  country,  we  cannot  hire  a  laborer  for  less 
than  a  dollar  a  day.  It  seems  to  me  that,  taking  into 
consideration  the  fact  that  the  cerosie  is  not  secreted  by 
the  stalks  so  abundantly  as  it  is  in  Algiers,  we  cannot 
spare  the  laborers  from  more  important  duties,  to  go  over 
the  field  and  carefully  scrape  the  wax  from  the  outside 
of  the  stalks.  To  obtain  a  small  quantity,  to  illustrate 
my  lectures  before  the  Legislatures  last  winter,  I  em- 
ployed one  of  our  pupils,  for  nearly  half  a  day,  and  the 
little  success  that  he  met  with,  convinced  me  at  the  time, 
that  any  calculations  of  its  becoming  an  important  com- 
mercial commodity  in  our  own  country,  were  futile,  un- 
less, perhaps,  by  either  steaming  the  stalks  in  a  vat  after 
they  were  cut,  or  by  the  use  of  some  machinery,  the  wax 


VINEGAR.  181 

could  be  removed  more  expeditiously,  and  in  greater 
quantity  than  it  was  in  this  instance. 

Any  one  of  my  readers  can  satisfy  himself  that  it  is 
indeed  a  wax,  and  burns  exactly  like  wax  candles,  by 
collecting  a  small  quantity  of  it  into  a  heap  and  setting 
fire  to  it  with  a  match.  The  flame  is  very  white  and 
beautful,  so  long  as  it  lasts. 

Professor  Gray,  at  page  60,  section  86  of  his  "  Botani- 
cal Text-Book,"  supposes  from  the  fact  that  bees  produce 
wax  from  sugar,  and  that  the  wax  of  the  sugar  cane 
sometimes  passes  into  sugar,  that  the  vegetable  wax  found 
in  plants  is  formed  of  sugar,  or  similar  products.  The 
Ceroxylum  Andicola,  or  Wax-bearing  Palm,  is  an  instance 
of  the  considerable  secretion  of  wax  by  a  vegetable. 
Mr.  Hardy  has  been  attacked  in  various  French  journals 
for  his  unwise  championship  of  this  novel  product ;  but 
with  a  persistence  either  the  result  of  constitutional  pro* 
clivity,  or  because  warranted  by  the  facts  which  he  has 
actually  arrived  at  in  his  Algerian  experience,  he  writes 
to  Count  Gasparin  that  he  desires  his  investigations  to  be 
remembered,  and  his  assertions  to  be  put  on  record  for 
future  reference,  that  he  is  more  convinced  than  ever 
that  the  wax  of  the  sorgho  will  indeed  be  one  of  its  most 
valuable  products. 

SORGHO  PAPE& 

In  the  books  of  M.  Duret  and  Dr.  Sicard  are  pasted 
specimens  of  paper,  respectively  obtained  by  them  from 
the  pulpy  sorgho  stalks,  of  which  that  in  Dr.  Sicard's 
book  is,  I  think,  the  best.  It  presents  the  appearance 


182  THE  CHINESE  SUGAR  CANE. 

and  texture,  to  a  great  extent,  of  fine  parchment,  and  is 
naturally  sized,  so  that  it  is  pleasant  to  write  upon.  It 
is  quite  strong,  and  for  that  reason  suitable  for  wrapping 
paper.  Of  it  he  says,  excusing  himself  for  its  unfinished 
quality,  "I  think  it  better  to  give  this  product  in  all  its 
primitive  purity,  rather  than  to  color  it.  Its  composition 
presents  doubtless  defects,  which  explain  themselves 
easily  when  it  is  remembered  that  this  paper  has  been 
made  by  a  person  entirely  unacquainted  with  paper- 
making,  in  want  of  all  objects  necessary  for  this  industry, 
and  aided  simply  by  my  little  son ;  it  will  be  understood 
by  the  result  obtained,  how  much  can  be  obtained  under 
proper  conditions  from  this  plant." 

Duret  gives  the  process  for  making  paper  from  corn 
stalks,  as  follows :  "  One  hundred  and  twenty -five  pounds 
of  pulp  of  the  stalk,  which  is  yet  moist,  and  from  which 
the  saccharine  matter  has  been  separated,  are  put  in  a 
copper,  with  about  fifteen  pounds  of  quick  lime  and  a 
sufficient  quantity  of  water  to  form  of  it  a  sort  of  clear 
paste.  The  mixture  is  moistened  from  time  to  time,  and 
after  several  days  of  contact  the  pulp  is  triturated  in  a 
cylinder  mill,  as  is  the  custom  with  common  rags.  After 
having  reduced  into  paste  the  residue  of  the  stalks,  as  we 
have  just  explained,  it  was  mixed  with  twelve  and  a  half 
pounds  of  paste  of  coarse  rags,  and  the  mixture  was  then 
submitted  to  a  new  trituration.  This  one  hundred  and 
twenty -five  pounds  of  the  stalk  mixed  with  twelve  and  a 
half  pounds  of  coarse  rags  have  yielded  sixty-three 
pounds  of  wrapping  paper,  well  sized. 

M.  Hudelist  thinks  that,  with  fifty  per  cent,  of  com- 
mon paste,  he  could  have  obtained  a  paper  very  strong 


VINEGAR.  188 

and  very  well  sized,  by  giving  no  more  care  to  the  tritu- 
ration  than  in  working  on  rags. 

M.  Felix  Yospette  has  also  made  paper  with  the  stalks 
of  corn  by  a  process  analogous  to  the  preceding ;  but  in 
place  of  ten  per  cent,  of  the  pulp  of  rags,  used  in  the 
experiment  made  by  M.  Hudelist,  he  made  use  of 
twenty  per  cent.,  and  has  obtained,  with  but  little  trouble, 
the  same  proportion  of  paper.  If,  in  the  place  of  using 
his  corn  pulp  moist,  that  is  to  say,  immediately  after  it 
had  been  pressed,  he  had  let  it  dry  before  turning  it  unto 
paper,  it  would  have  been  necessary  to  boil  it  to  resoften 
it,  and  submit  it  afterwards^  as  we  have  above  mentioned, 
to  the  successive  action  of  lime  water  and  of  the  cylin- 
der. The  paper  made  by  M.  Vospette  is  pliant,  close  in 
texture,  very  solid,  of  a  pale  shade,  and  made  without 
other  odor  than  that  of  the  stalk  from  which  it  was  made ; 
it  is  naturally  sized,  for,  in  writing  on  it,  it  is  impenetrable 
to  common  ink. 

The  quire  of  twenty-five  sheets  weighs  one  pound  six 
ounces ;  consequently  the  ream,  which  has  twenty  quires, 
gives  a  weight  equal  to  twenty-seven  pounds.  The  pulp 
of  the  stalks  loses  by  desiccation  nearly  two  thirds  of  its 
weight.  Twenty  pounds  of  this  pulp,  very  dry,  pro- 
duced twenty  pounds  twelve  ounces  of  manufactured 
paper.  There  would  then  be  an  advantage  in  making 
cornstalk  paper  with  the  moist  pulp,  which  would  be 
impossible  in  a  large  manufacture,  where  the  mass  of 
matter  to  be  worked  up  should  be  dried  in  order  that  it 
might  be  manufactured  as  it  was  wanted.  For  the  mili- 
tary service,  cartridges  have  been  made  with  this  stalk 
paper,  and  it  has  been  proved  that  it  resists  humidity 


184  THE   CHINESE  SUGAE  CANE. 

more,  and  is  less  combustible  than  that  which  is  usually 
employed  for  the  same  purpose. 

As  yet,  of  course,  no  experiments  have  been  made  in 
making  paper  from  the  sorgho  stalks  in  this  country,  but 
from  the  specimens  in  the  books  of  Dr.  Sicard  and  M. 
Duret,  I  think  it  possible  that  our  manufacturers  will 
apply  themselves  to  experiments  in  this  respect,  and 
doubtless  improve  upon  the  results  of  the  French  inves- 
tigators. 

Thus,  through  all  its  different  aspects,  have  we  traced 
this  wonderful  plant ;  which,  although  so  lately  introduced, 
has  created  such  very  general  interest  with  those  who 
have  had  any  experience  in  its  cultivation.  It  now  only 
remains  for  me  to  present  the  result  of  my  labors  to  the 
American  farmers  and  planters,  and  to  express  the  wish 
that  the  Chinese  Sugar  Cane  may  realize  the  nattering 
promise  which  it  now  gives,  and  prove  itself  worthy  of 
adoption  into  the  list  of  our  most  valued  economical 
plants. 


CHAPTEE   IX. 

LEONAKD  WBAY,  OF  LONDON,  England.  Letters  Patent, 
No.  17,713,  Dated  June  30,  1857.    Patented  in  Belgi- 
um, June  20,  1854. 
To  all  whom  it  may  concern: 

Be  it  known  unto  all  men,  that  I,  Leonard  Wray,  of 
the  City  of  London,  in  the  United  Kingdom  of  Great 
Britain  and  Ireland,  have  discovered  a  new  process  or 
method  of  making  crystallized  sugar,  syrup  and  molasses, 
from  all  the  African  and  Chinese  varieties  of  the  "  Im- 
phee  "  or  "  Holcus  saccharatus  "  of  Linnaeus,  often  denom- 
inated "  Sugar  millet,  "  "  Sorghum  saccharatum"  "  Sorgho 
Sucre,"  etc. ;  which  process  is  also  applicable  to  the  man- 
ufacture of  the  same  products  from  the  juice  of  the 
maize,  broom  corn,  the  sugar  maple,  etc. 

The  process  constituting  my  said  invention,  may 
briefly  thus  be  stated :  I  take  the  stalks  of  the  said 
plants,  and  obtain  the  juice  contained  in  them  by  any 
ordinary  and  well  known  method.  This  raw  saccharine 
juice  I  then  treat  with  lime,  or  cream  of  lime,  until  it  has 
lost  all  trace  of  acidity,  and  even  becomes  sufficiently 
alkaline  to  affect,  in  a  slight  degree,  turmeric  paper,  or 
other  equally  sensitive  test  paper ;  when  I  at  once  remove 
the  said  juice  into  a  suitable  filtering  or  other  apparatus 
for  separating  the  feculencies  or  coagulated  matters  from 
the  juice,  so  as  to  obtain  a  clear  bright  liquor  or  juice, 
without  having  subjected  it  to  any  heat  whatever.  This 

[185] 


186  THE  CHINESE  SUGAR  CANE. 

clear  bright  juice  or  liquor,  I  then  put  into  a  suitable 
vessel,  and  apply  heat  until  the  temperature  rises  from 
120  to  180  degrees  Fahrenheit,  when  I  treat  it  with  a 
dilute  infusion  of  powdered  nut  galls,  or  other  substance 
containing  tannin,  neutralizing  any  excess  of  tannin  that 
may  have  been  accidentally  given,  or  any  acid  which 
may  have  become  liberated,  by  the  addition  of  a  little 
lime,  cream  of  lime,  or  lime  in  any  other  suitable  com- 
bination; I  then  urge  the  heat  until  the  liquor  has 
arrived  at  the  boiling  point,  at  which  it  should  be  kept 
for  a  few  moments,  when  the  heat  is  withdrawn,  and  the 
liquor  is  again  filtered  and  rendered  clear. 

This  clear  defecated  liquor  is  next  evaporated,  and  if 
in  open  pans,  the  scum  is  taken  off  as  it  rises,  and  the 
evaporation  is  continued,  either  in  open  pans  or  in  any  low 
temperature  apparatus,  until  the  liquor  is  sufficiently  con- 
centrated to  permit  of  its  granulation  or  crystallization 
taking  effect  in  proper  receptacles,  into  which  it  is  placed 
for  that  purpose.  If  it  should  so  happen,  that  the  said 
concentrated  juice  exhibits  a  disinclination  to  granulate 
or  form  crystals,  then  the  addition  of  a  few  ounces  of 
well  grained  dry  sugar  may  be  had  recourse  to,  which 
will  immediately  cause  a  granulation  of  the  concentrated 
syrup.  It  must  be  well  understood,  that  I  make  use  of 
charcoal  once,  twice,  or  thrice,  in  the  filtration  and  decolor- 
ization  of  the  juice  and  syrup;  or,  on  the  other  hand,  I 
do  not  use  it  at  all,  just  as  I  may  see  fit  and  expedient. 
When  the  new  sugar  is  properly  granulated,  its  molasses 
is  separated  from  it  by  the  usual  methods  now  employed. 

It  must  be  distinctly  understood  that  the  mere  idea  of 
cold  filtration  is  not  unknown,  because  numerous  attempts 


MB.  WEAY'S  PROCESS.  187 

have  from  time  to  time  been  made  to  filter  the  raw  juice 
of  the  sugar  cane,  before  applying  heat  thereto,  and 
small  quantities  of  lime  have  been  put  into  the  said  raw 
juice,  before  filtration,  in  order  to  prevent  the  acidifica- 
tion and  fermentation  of  the  juice  during  filtration,  and 
before  it  could  reach  the  boilers  and  be  boiled ;  but  my 
distinct  and  well  proved  method,  is  that  of  adding  lime, 
or  cream  of  lime,  to  the  raw  juice  until  it  loses  all  traces 
of  acidity,  and  it  becomes  sufficiently  alkaline  to  affect 
slightly  the  color  of  turmeric  paper,  or  other  equally  sen- 
sitive alkaline  test  paper.  The  chemical  principle  in- 
volved in  this  process,  I  will  now  explain,  so  as  to 
demonstrate  the  very  peculiar  and  distinctive  character 
of  my  treatment;  distinguishing  it,  therefore,  from  all 
other  methods. 

The  juice  as  it  comes  from  the  mill,  I  have  always 
found  to  be  palpably  acid;  the  first  effect  of  the  lime, 
therefore,  is  to  neutralize  the  juice;  secondly,  to  regulate 
(by  a  further  addition  of  lime)  as  large %a  quantity  of  the 
feculencies  as  possible,  by  saturating  the  acids  which 
hold  them  dissolved  in  the  juice.  When  the  lime  has  in 
this  manner  combined  with  the  acids,  and  liberated  the 
feculencies,  whatever  lime  may  be  in  excess,  tends  to 
make  the  juice  alkaline,  which  the  turmeric  paper  imme- 
diately denotes,  showing  the  necessity  of  instant  filtration, 
which  yields  a  beautiful  clean,  clear  bright  juice,  without 
any  heat  having  been  used,  leaving  in  the  filtered  juice, 
besides  the  sugar  and  water,  only  a  little  dextrine,  caseine 
and  saline  matter.  By  this  simple  process,  a  host  of 
troublesome  albuminous,  glutinous,  gummy,  waxy,  and 
mucilaginous  matters  combined  under  the  general  head 


188  THE   CHINESE  SUGAR  CANE. 

offeculencies,  are  got  rid  of  entirely,  before  they  can  act 
injuriously  upon  the  sugar  contained  in  the  juice,  which 
they  infallibly  do  the  moment  we  apply  heat  to  the  undef- 
ecated  mass.  Having  thus  obtained  this  bright  raw 
juice,  I  next  treat  it  in  the  manner  already  specified, 
with  heat,  infusion  of  nut  galls  (or  other  analogous 
substance  containing  tannin,)  and  cream  of  lime,  lime 
water,  or  other  suitable  combination  of  lime,  and  then 
filter,  so  as  to  get  rid  of  the  dextrine  and  caseine,  or 
as  much  of  them  as  is  possible,  previous  to  subjecting  the 
juice  to  continuous  heat. 

The  mere  idea  of  using  an  infusion  of  nut  galls  or 
other  tannin  substances  in  sugar  making,  is  not  new; 
inasmuch  as  these  substances  have  been  recommended 
and  even  been  tried  by  "W.  J.  Evans,  M.  D.,  of  London, 
in  whose  work,  the  "  Sugar  Planter's  Manual,"  (1847,) 
it  may  be  found  at  page  101 ;  but  it  will  be  at  once  ob- 
served, that  the  manner  of  employing  it,  or  them,  as  laid 
down  therein  by  Doctor  Evans,  is  ENTIRELY  DIFFERENT 
from  my  own  method ;  for  he  applies  the  infusion  of  nut 
galls  to  the  raw  green  juice  in  the  clarifier,  just  as  it 
comes  from  the  mill,  and  previous  to  any  other  defecation 
having  taken  place.  Whereas,  I,  on  the  contrary,  first 
defecate  the  cold  raw  green  juice,  by  means  of  lime,  cream 
of  lime,  or  other  suitable  preparation  of  lime,  (as  herein 
before  set  forth);  and  then  filter  the  juice  so  treated, 
thereby  getting  rid  of  the  great  mass  of  green  feculent 
matter  contained  in  it,  and  obtaining  a  clear,  bright  and 
almost  colorless  juice  or  liquor,  previous  to  applying  any 
heat  whatever,  and  previous  to  the  venturing  upon  any 
application  of  the  infusion  of  nut  galls  or  other  tannic 


ME.  WRAY'S  PROCESS.  189 

substances;    thus  forming  a  totally  distinct  method  of 
using  and  applying  the  said  tannic  substances  to  the  juice. 

My  process,  therefore,  consists  first  in  the  cold  defeca- 
tion of  raw  juice  by  means  of  lime,  or  other  suitable  com- 
bination of  lirne,  immediately  followed  by  filtration,  as 
hereinbefore  particularly  detailed ;  and  secondly,  the  treat- 
ment of  the  clear  bright  juice  or  liquor  resulting  from 
this  cold  defecation,  with  infusion  of  nut  galls  or  other 
suitable  tannic  substances,  aided  by  heat  in  suitable  ves- 
sels and  subsequent  filtration,  as  hereinbefore  described : 
together,  making  as  a  whole,  one  plain  consecutive 
process,  which  I  have  herein  fully  and  faithfully  ex- 
plained and  set  forth;  and  which  has  never  been  sug- 
gested nor  employed  by  any  one  else  before. 

These  comprise  the  whole  of  my  treatment;  and  I 
submit  that  they  constitute  an  entirely  distinct  and  new 
process,  being  one  whereby  excellent  crystallized  sugar 
has  been,  and  can  always  be  made  from  the  plants  I  have 
before  named.  And  I  therefore  claim  the  process,  as 
herein  set  forth,  and  desire  to  secure  the  same  by  Letters 
Patent. 

L.  WEAY. 

CHAS.  L.  ALEXANDER,     ) 
THOMAS  C.  CONNOLLY,    $ 


PART  II. 


THE 


ZULU-KAFFIR    IMPHEE, 

OR, 

"SWEET    REED/; 

(THE    Holcus    Saccharatus    OF    LINNAEUS,) 


COMPRISING  A  DESCRIPTION  OF  ITS  NUMEROUS  VARIETIES,  ITS  MODE 

OF  CULTIVATION,  AND  THE  MANUFACTURE  OF  SUGAR 

AND  OTHER  PRODUCTS  FROM  ITS  RICH 

SACCHARINE  JUICE. 


BY    LEONAED    WEAY, 

AUTHOR  OF    "  THE  PRACTICAL  SUGAR   PLANTER,''    "  THE  SUGAR  PLANTER* 8 
COMPANION,''  ETC.,  ETC. 


THE      IM:PHEE9 


AFRICAN    SUGAR   CANE. 

THERE  can  be  no  question  that  many  useful  arts  and 
manufactures,  known  and  practiced  by  the  ancients,  have, 
from  certain  untoward  causes,  been  lost  to  the  world,  and 
continue  so  to  this  day.  Many,  again,  have  been  redis- 
covered from  time  to  time,  and  are  thus  restored  to  the 
present  generation;  holding  rank,  however,  more  fre- 
quently in  the  character  of  new  and  original  discoveries 
and  inventions,  than  as  mere  restorations  to  human 
knowledge. 

Not  a  few  have  been  restored  to  us  by  purely  acci- 
dental circumstances ;  others  have  been  strictly  the  dis- 
coveries and  inventions  of  practical  and  gifted  men  of 
modern  times,  the  results  of  sagacious  observation,  skill- 
ful experiments,  and  practical  deductions,  apart  from  any 
previous  traditionary  ideas  on  the  subject ;  whilst  others, 
again,  have  been  the  valued  reward  of  intense  study  and 
unwearied  endeavors  to  obtain  those  results  which  tradi- 
tion, or  perhaps,  even  existing  specimens,  told  them  had 
been  accomplished  in  bygone  ages,  and  by  which  they 
were  incited  to  attempt  their  rediscovery. 

9  [193] 


194  THE    Ai'IUCAX    SUGAR    CANE. 

Amongst  the  many,  t\vo  articles,  namely,  glass  and 
iron,  suffice  to  furnish  us  with  numerous  familiar  instances 
of  lost  processes  rediscovered;  and  even  of  lost  manufac- 
tures not  yet  restored  to  us.  although  sought  after  by 
many  really  practical  men.  We  may,  moreover,  go  beyond 
these  remarks,  and  assert  that  there  are  some,  if  not  many, 
arts  and  manufactures  known  and  carried  on  by  the 
Chinese,  which  certainly  are  not  understood  and  prac- 
ticed by  Europeans. 

Not  a  few  of  their  simple  inventions  and  ingenious 
contrivances  are  either  totally  unknown  to  us,  or  if 
slightly  mentioned  by  travelers  rather  more  observant 
than  others,  their  accounts  have  been  so  inaccurate  and 
deficient  in  detail,  that  the  principle  and  consequent  value 
of  these  inventions  have  remained  unappreciated  and  un- 
adopted. 

Who  would  be  so  hardy  as  to  assert  that  much  valu- 
able knowledge  in  various  particular  branches  of  art  (of 
which  we  ourselves  are  ignorant)  does  not  exist  in  the 
islands  of  Japan  ?  I  fancy  that  no  reasonable  man  would 
venture  upon  such  an  assertion.  All  this  serves  to  teach 
us,  that  in  bringing  forward  anything  as  a  NEW  DIS- 
COVERY of  our  own,  we  must  not  be  disconcerted  if,  on 
careful  examination,  we  find  that  we  are,  in  reality, 
merely  rediscovering,  and  giving  to  our  own  generation 
and  country,  in  a  practice  form,  that  which  has  been 
known  and  attempted,  if  not  actually  used,  in  by-gone 
times ;  or  perhaps  by  a  far  distant  and  scarcely  known 
people  of  our  own  day. 

It  is  a  principle,  however,  most  wisely  recognized  by  the 
law  of  almost  every  civilized  nation  of  the  present  age,  that 


INTKODUCTOKY   OBSERVATIONS.  195 

any  individual  making  such  a  rediscovery,  or  reinvention, 
or  even  introducing  a  useful  invention,  so  as  to  utilize  or 
turn  it  to  a  useful  purpose,  should  be,  to  all  intents  and 
purposes,  entitled  to  the  benefits  and  advantages  accruing 
from  a  patent,  or  protective  grant,  during  a  period  of 
years,  varying  according  to  the  laws  of  the  different 
countries  wherein  such  patent  is  granted. 

Were  this  wise  and  enlightened  view  of  the  case  not 
taken,  how  many  hundreds  of  useful  and  important  dis- 
coveries and  inventions  would  now  still  continue  hidden 
in  the  dormant  state  to  which,  in  ages  past,  the  accidental 
death,  even  the  poverty,  of  the  original  inventor  and  dis- 
coverer, a  slight  mischance,  or  a  local  difficulty,  might 
perhaps  have  consigned  them.  We  even  see,  in  our  own 
day,  how  many  really  useful  inventions  are  suffered  to 
languish  and  become  inoperative  for  lack  of  energy,  want 
of  encouragement,  &c.,  or  the  thousand  and  one  chances 
and  obstacles  to  the  successful  introduction  of  modern  im- 
provements and  inventions.  We  can  well  understand, 
therefore,  how  strongly  all  these,  and  other  causes,  may 
have  operated  in  less  advanced,  less  enlightened,  and  less 
enterprising  ages. 

I  have  been  led  to  these  few  introductory  observations 
by  the  reflections  which  have  been  forced  upon  my  mind 
within  the  last  few  months,  whilst  following  up  the  sub- 
ject matter  involved  in  the  history  of  sugar  manufacture, 
from  the  earliest  records  to  the  present  day ;  and  of  t"he 
plants  from  which  the  natives  o£  various  countries  ex- 
tracted a  kind  of  sugar  or  jaggery,  before  the  sugar  cane 
was  so  universally  diffused  over  the  globe. 

In  the  year  1847,  whilst  I  was  engaged  in  writing  my 


196  THE  AFRICAN  SUGAR  CANE. 

work,  "  The  Practical  Sugar  Planter,"  my  mind  became 
strongly  impressed  with  the  idea  (an  impression  almost 
amounting  to  conviction)  that  "  the  reed,"  the  "  sweet 
reed,"  so  frequently  made  mention  of  by  ancient  authors 
as  being  used  by  the  natives  of  Morocco,  Ethiopia, 
Egypt,  Arabia,  and  India,  for  the  purpose  of  making 
sugar  or  jaggery,  did  not  really  in  all  cases  mean,  or  apply 
to,  the  sugar  cane,  but  that  some  other  reed-like  plant 
was  more  particularly  referred  to,  which  in  process  of 
time  had  been  gradually  displaced  by  the  true  sugar  cane. 
But  with  no  satisfactory  authority,  and  with  no  corro- 
borative evidence  to  support  the  idea  I  had  formed,  it  by 
degrees  lost  its  hold  upon  my  mind,  and  eventually  was 
scarcely  remembered.  However,  on  visiting  a  colony  in 
Natal,  in  Africa,  in  1851,  I  found  there,  in  the  plant 
called  by  the  Zulu-Kaffirs  Imphee,  "the  sweet  reed," 
which  might  well  have  been  alluded  to  by  the  ancient 
writers.  My  mind,  at  that  time,  was  so  occupied  by  other 
subjects,  that  I  paid  but  small  attention  to  this  interest- 
ing plant,  and  some  time  elapsed  before  I  directed  my 
thoughts  to  it,  and  thus  became  aware  of  its  immense  im- 
portance to  Europe  and  America,  and,  indeed,  to  the 
world  at  large. 

I  heard  that  some  very  intelligent  colonists  had  tried 
to  make  sugar  from  its  rich  juice,  but  that  they  had,  one 
and  all,  entirely  failed  in  doing  so. 

No  way  discouraged,  I  sent  my  most  intelligent  Kafir 
servants  long  distances  to  collect  me  seed  of  all  the  dif- 
ferent kinds  of  imphee  known  amongst  themselves,  and 
thus  obtained  fifteen  kinds,  more  or  less  differing  from 
each  other,  but  all  known  under  the  general  native  name 


INTRODUCTORY   OBSERVATIONS.  197 

of  Imphee,  and  comprised  in  botany  under  the  name  Hol- 
cus  saccharatus  (Linnasus.) 

All  of  the  seeds  I  planted,  and  made  sugar  from  the 
whole  fifteen  different  kinds,  which  enabled  me  to  ascer- 
tian  not  only  the  saccharine  value  of  each,  but  likewise 
the  distinct  peculiarities  of  the  growth,  seeding,  etc.,  etc. 

The  results  of  my  observations  and  long-continued  study 
of  their  habits  and  relative  value  will  be  found  in  the 
succeeding  pages  ;  but  my  manufacture  was  so  complete- 
ly successful,  that  I  left  Natal  and  came  to  Europe  to 
prosecute  my  discovery,  and  introduce  to  the  notice  of 
the  world  the  vast  importance  of  the  plants  for  sugar 
manufacture. 

In  recently  looking  over  various  botanical  works,  I 
find  that  attempts  have  been  made  by  Signer  Arduino 
and  others  to  introduce  varieties  of  this  plant  into  Euro- 
pean cultivation,  for  the  purpose  of  making  sugar,  but 
from  some  cause  or  other  they  had  hitherto  been  perfectly 
unsuccessful. 

Nor  am  I  any  way  surprised  at  these  failures,  believing 
that  its  success  in  Europe  very  essentially  depends  upon 
the  particular  kind  of  imphee  that  is  planted,  and  the 
next,  upon  a  peculiar  method  employed  in  treating  the 
juice. 

I  also  find  it  stated  that  the  inhabitants  of  northern 
China  use  it  in  making  a  kind  of  sugar. 

This  really  may  or  may  not  be  the  case,  for,  in  point 
of  fact,  almost  the  whole  of  northern  China,  together  with 
the  major  portion  of  the  great  interior  of  that  immense 
empire,  may  be  fairly  denominated  a  terra  incognita  to  us  ; 
a  country  so  effectually  sealed  up,  that,  as  I  before  ob- 


198  THE   AFRICAN    SITIAi:    CANE. 

served,  numerous  arts  and  manufactures  may  be  there 
existent  at  the  present  moment,  which  are  nevertheless 
wholly  unknown  to  us,  or  perhaps  have  been  heard  of 
only  through  the  medium  of  unauthenticated  and  unsatis- 
factory rumors. 

In  the  manufacture  of  crystallized  sugar,  and  other 
products,  from  the  imphee  and  Holcus  saccharatus,  I  have 
had  the  most  signal  success,  and  in  the  following  pages 
I  will  endeavor  to  set  the  value  of  these  plants  in  a  true 
light  before  the  public,  hoping  very  soon  to  present  to 
the  attention  of  my  kind  readers,  a  much,  larger  and  more 
comprehensive  edition  of  this  work. 


BOTANICAL  NOTICE  AND  HISTORY. 

It  is  indeed  most  difficult  for  me,  not  being  a  botanist, 
to  give  a  botanical  description  of  the  Zulu-Kaffir  Imphee 
that  could  be  deemed  altogether  satisfactory ;  for,  after 
the  most  careful  research  among  the  best  botanical  works, 
and  after  consulting  very  eminent  botanists  personally, 
I  can  come  to  no  other  conclusion  than  that  the  most  sin- 
gular uncertainty  and  confusion  reign  among  them  all 
in  their  several  accounts  of  this  species,  arising,  evidently, 
from  the  fact  of  no  sufficiently  competent  botanist  having 
yet  thoroughly  investigated  the  differences  existing  be- 
tween the  several  kinds  of  imphee  and  the  several  kinds 
of  Mabaalee  or  Kaffir  corn. 

This  lamentable  state  of  things  will,  however,  be  ter- 
minated, I  trust,  in  a  few  days,  as  I  have  now  flowering 
in  England  three  kinds  of  real  imphee,  besides  my  dried 
specimens,  which  will  enable  me  to  obtain  from  Dr. 


BOTANICAL    NOTICE    AND    HISTORY.  199 

Thompson  (a  distinguished  botanist)  their  true  botanical 
description ;  although  we  certainly  have  no  plants  of  the 
Kaffir  corn,  or  Guinea  corn,  with  which  to  contrast 
them. 

I  will,  however,  venture  to  say,  that  I  entirely  agree 
with  Linnaeus,  Brown,  and  others,  in  the  botanical  name 
which  they  have  bestowed  upon  the  Imphee,  namely,  Hol- 
cus  saccharatus,  the  Kaffir  or  Guinea  corn  being  /Sorghum 
vulgare,  or  Sorghum,  halapense,  or  Sorghum  andropogon, 
as  its  several  kinds  are  called  by  various  authors. 

In  a  work  entitled  "  Hortus  Americanus,"  published  very 
many  years  ago,  in  Jamaica,  by  Dr.  Barham,  the  Guinea 
corn,  so  universally  cultivated  in  the  island  for  its  grain, 
is  described  as  "  Holcus  /Sorghum,  or  /Sorghum  vulgare; 
native  habitat,  Coast  of  Guinea,  Africa ;  natural  order, 
Graminea;  class,  Polygamia ;  order,  Moncecia ;"  and  the 
general  account  therein  given  of  it  agrees  in  every  respect 
with  my  own  observations. 

Many  other  sorts  of  the  same  grain  are  grown  by  the 
Zulu-Kaffirs,  on  the  south-east  coast  of  Africa,  but  are  all 
comprised  under  the  one  general  name  of  Mabaalee,  al- 
though much  difference  exists  between  them,  not  only  in 
the  peculiarities  of  the  seed-heads,  etc.,  but  likewise  in  the 
juice  of  the  stalks,  being  slightly  sweet  in  some,  whilst  in 
others  scarcely  a  trace  of  sweetness  can  be  detected.  They 
are  all  cultivated  for  their  grain,  and  for  that  alone; 
whereas,  the  imphee,  or  Holcus  saccharatus,  is  grown  only 
for  its  sweet  juice,  and  never,  to  my  knowledge,  for  its 
grain,  which  the  Kaffirs  say  cannot  be  used  as  human 
food,  in  explanation  of  which  I  must  state  that  they  never 
grind  their  Mabaalec  to  extract  the  flour,  but  boil  it  whole. 


200  THE  AFKICAN   SUGAR  CANE. 

in  which  form  they  consider  the  grain  of  the  imphee  to 
be  highly  deleterious. 

The  great  and  essential  differences  really  existing  be- 
tween the  Sorghum  andropogon  and  the  Holcus  sacchara- 
tus  are  certainly  not  those  unluckily  relied  upon  by  some 
of  our  modern  botanists,  and  shown  in  the  following : 

"  But  most  botanists  seem  to  agree  that  there  are  only 
two  main  types,  to  which  all  the  others  are  subordinate. 
Sorghum  vulgare  has  an  oval,  rigid,  more  or  less  compact, 
panicle  or  head  of  flowers,  with  ascending  branches,  while 
Sorghum  saccharatum*  has  a  loose  panicle,  with  lax, 
elongated,  weak,  and  sometimes  pendulous,  branches." 

For  at  least  three  or  four  sorts  of  irnphee,  namely, 
J£bom-ba-na,  Shla-goon-dee,  and  Oorn-see-a-na,  have  pani- 
cles as  rigid  and  compact,  with  branches  erect,  and  as 
short  and  stiff  as  can  well  be. 

The  "two  main  types"  therefore,  are  entirely  fanciful 
and  valueless,  forming  no  criterion  whatever. 

Another  writer  says :  "  Millet  seed,  the  produce  of 
Holcus  saccharatum,  is  imported  largely  into  this  country 
(England)  from  the  East  Indies,  for  the  purpose  chiefly 
of  making  puddings ;  and  by  many  persons  it  is  preferred 
to  rice."  Of  this  I  may  simply  say,  that  it  is  nothing  of 
the  .kind  ;  it  is  quite  a  different  millet. 

To  make  confusion  worse  confounded,  some  botanical 
writers  likewise  call  the  broom  corn,  Sorghum  sacchara- 
tum,  making,  upon  the  whole  a  nice  medley  of  those 
really  simple  distinctions. 

In  spite  of  all  these  scientific  complexities,  however,  I 
think  we  may  safely  hold  the  imphee  (of  all  kinds)  to  be 
*  Meaning,  of  course,  Holcus  saccharatus. — L.  W. 


BOTANICAL  NOTICE  AND  HISTORY.  201 

actually  the  Holcus  saccharatus,  a  perfectly  distinct  tribe 
of  plants,  and  not  a  Sorghum  at  all ! 

It  is  said  that  seed  of  this  plant  was  introduced  (for 
what  purpose  is  not  stated)  into  England  in  1759 ;  but 
seeing  the  botanical  confusion  existing  on  the  subject,  I 
very  firmly  disbelieve  it,  and  consider  that  it  was  much 
more  likely  to  have  been  some  kind  of  sorghum,  intro- 
duced for  the  sake  of  its  grain. 

There  can  be  no  doubt,  however,  that  Professor  Pietro 
Arduino,  of  Florence,  became  acquainted  with  one  or 
more  sorts  of  the  Holcus  saccharatus,  perhaps  as  early  as 
1766 ;  and  1786  he  published  an  account  of  his  experi- 
ments in  sugar  making  from  it.  It  would  seem  that  he 
endeavored  to  establish  its  cultivation  in  Tuscany ;  but 
for  causes  which  have  never  been  clearly  given,  he  did 
not  succeed  in  doing  so. 

From  his  time,  it  may  be  said  to  have  remained  in  total 
obscurity,  (as  far  as  Europe  is  concerned,)  down  to  the 
year  1854. 

So  much  has  this  been  the  case,  that  although  I  have 
been  a  sugar  planter  so  many  years  of  my  life,  and 
have,  as  an  author,  had  to  look  closely  into  all  informa- 
tion connected  with  the  production  of  sugar,  in  both 
ancient  and  modern  times ;  yet  I  can  truly  say,  that  I 
knew  nothing  of  this  plant  until  I  resided  in  the  colony  of 
Natal,  on  the  south-east  coast  of  Africa,  where  it  grows 
in  abundance.  Nor  was  it  until  I  reached  England  this 
year,  that  I  could  obtain  the  works  of  scientific  authors, 
from  which  to  learn  its  botanical  character,  and  what 
efforts  had  been  made,  if  any,  to  introduce  it  to  notice. 

It  was  with  the  utmost,  difficulty  that  I  was  enabled  to 
9* 


202          THE  AFRICAN  SUGAR  CANE. 

obtain  the  whole  fifteen  sorts  of  imphee  that  I  now  have; 
and  I  never  should  have  acquired  anything  like  accurate 
knowledge  of  the  individual  peculiarities  and  value,  had 
I  not  cultivated  thei^  on  a  sufficiently  large  scale; 
thoroughly  studied  them  during  their  growth,  and  ulti- 
mately made  a  large  quantity  of  sugar  from  them.  The 
seed  I  obtained  from  this  cultivation,  T  have  now  in  Eng- 
land with  me ;  and  it  is  capable,  with  care,  of  planting 
some  hundreds  of  acres.  Some  plants  grown  in  England 
this  year,  have  already  ripened  their  seeds,  which  are 
full  and  plump. 

I  have  grown  it  in  Belgium  and  several  other  parts  of 
the  continent  this  year,  and  it  has  succeeded  remark- 
ably well. 

But  if  we  look  back  from  our  own  times  to  very 
remote  ages,  and  search  for  any  very  authentic  records 
of  the  imphee  or  Holcus  saccharatus  among  the  writings 
of  ancient  authors,  we  must  confess  the  unsatisfactory 
result  of  our  inquiry ;  for  the  notices  of  the  "sweet  reed,'' 
contained  in  their  writings,  have  long  ago  been  seized  by 
Porter  and  other  authors,  and  appropriated  by  them  as 
forming  part  and  parcel  of  the  history  of  the  sugar  cane. 

But  if  we  examine  somewhat  minutely  into  the  mat- 
ter, we  shall  find  abundant  reason  for  believing  that  the 
Holcus  saccharatus  was  frequently  alluded  to  instead  of 
the  sugar  cane,  more  especially  by  the  Koman  writers ; 
thus  Lucian,  (Book  iii,  page  237,)  has  the  line — 

"  Quique  bibunt  tener&  dulces  ab  arundine  succos."* 
which  can  scarcely  be  supposed  to  apply  to  the  large, 
cocrse,  hard  stoclt  of  the  sugar  cane. 

*  "  And  those  who  drink  sweet  juices  from  the  tender  reed.' 


BOTANICAL  NOTICE   AND   HISTORY.  203 

Besides  this,  we  all  know  that  the  Eomans  had  a  very 
excellent  general  knowledge  of  the  products  of  Ethiopia, 
in  which  varieties  of  the  Holcus  saccharatus  are  to  be 
found ;  and  they,  no  doubt,  knew  that  the  natives  ate,  or 
rather  chewed,  its  stalks,  for  the  "  sweet  juices ,"  contained 
in  them. 

The  native  traders  who  took  a  coarse  kind  of  goor,  or 
jaggery,  to  Muciris  and  Ormus.  always  said  that  they  ob- 
tained it  from  a  "reed;"  and  I  have  no  doubt  that  they 
did  really  obtain  it  from  this  reed-like  plant,  until  the 
sugar  cane  superseded  it  in  their  estimation,  and  was 
cultivated  in  its  stead. 

I  could  enlarge  much  upon  this  interesting  question, 
had  I  the  space  to  do  so ;  but  the  confined  limits  of  this 
treatise  compels  me  to  bring  this  chapter  to  a  conclusion 
as  soon  as  possible. 

I  venture  to  consider  the  Holcus  saccharatus  as  the 
connecting  link  between  the  sugar  cane  and  the  grain- 
yielding  sorghums ;  and  so  strong  an  impression  did 
my  mind  receive  when  I  first  saw  the  extremely  tall 
"  Vim-bis-chu-a-pa"  and  "  E-a-na-moo-dee,"*  that  I  al- 
most persuaded  myself  that  they  were  in  reality  hybrids, 
between  the  sugar  cane  and  the  Kaffir  corn  (Sorghum 
vulgare.') 

Such,  however,  is  not  the  case ;    but  it  remains  to  be 

*  The  two  largest  of  the  imphee  kind. 

Note. — Wilkinson  says,  that  the  Holcus  saccharatus  (Arabic  name 
Dokhn,)  is  grown  about  Assouan,  in  Nubia  and  the  Oasis. 

Of  sorghums,  there  are,  in  Egypt,  six  kinds,  namely,  Doura  sayfee, 
or  baalee ;  D.  humra,  D.  kaydee,  D.  byood,  or  dimeree ;  D. 
owaygeh,  D.  safira. 


204  THE   AFRICAN   SUGAR   CANE. 

seen   whether   we   can,    by  adopting  proper   measures, 
obtain  hybrids  between  the  imphee  and  the  sugar  cane. 


DIFFERENT  VARIETIES  OF  THE  IMPHEE,  ETC. 

I  am  acquainted  with  fifteen  varieties  of  the  Holcus 
saccharatus,  although  I  doubt  not  there  are  yet  others 
in  different  parts  of  the  world  that  have  not  come  under 
my  notice. 

I  shall,  therefore,  confine  my  remarks  to  the  fifteen 
varieties ;  and  to  prevent  the  constant  repetition  of  their 
botanical  name,  I  shall,  throughout  these  pages,  use  their 
Zulu-Kaffir  name  of  Imphee  alone. 

Among  Europeans  residing  in  South  Africa  no  dis- 
tinction is  known  in  regard  to  the  varieties,  and  there 
they  will  be  much  surprised  at  learning  that  there  are 
really  fifteen  different  kinds  of  imphee  growing  before 
their  eyes,  and  constantly  being  eaten  by  them. 

There  is  certainly  that  degree  of  similarity  between 
them  when  seen  growing  together  which  is  quite  suffi- 
cient to  puzzle  any  one  who  has  not  thoroughly  studied 
them ;  and  this  is  so  much  the  case  that  there  are  very 
few  male  Kaffirs  even  who  can  discriminate  between 
some  of  the  varieties ;  in  consequence  of  which  I  had 
very  frequently  to  call  in  the  superior  agricultural  knowl- 
edge of  the  old  Kaffir  women,  until  I  had  learned  to  dis- 
tinguish between  them  with  certainty  myself. 

When  I  had  attained  this  first  most  desirable  step,  I 
had  next  to  learn  their  several  peculiarities  and  value  ; 
which  I  was  able  to  do  with  greater  exactness  by  plant- 
ing the  seed  watching  them  daily  during  their  growth, 


VARIETIES   OF  THE   IMPHEE.  205 

and  eventually  testing  the  saccharine  value  of  their 
juices,  and  making  sugar  from  them  all  in  large 
quantities. 

"  Vim-bis-chu-d-pa" — This  is  the  largest  size,  and  the 
tallest  of  the  whole  ;  whilst  it  is  full  of  juice,  and  very 
sweet.  When  planted  in  rich  alluvial  soil  it  attains  its 
greatest  size  and  most  perfect  development,  requiring 
from  four  to  five  months  to  arrive  at  maturity.  It  grows 
to  a  height  of  from  ten  to  fifteen  feet,  is  from  one  and  a 
half  to  two  inches  in  diameter  at  the  lower  end  of  the 
stalk,  and  usually  cracks  or  splits  as  it  ripens.  By 
means  of  a  most  primitive  and  ill-constructed  little  wooden 
mill,  I  obtained  sixty  per  cent,  of  juice  from  the  stalks. 
This  juice  was  clean  and  clear,  and  the  saccharometer 
showed  it  to  contain  fourteen  per  cent,  of  sugar,  after  I 
had  removed  the  feculas  by  means  of  cold  defecation. 
The  sugar  it  yielded  was  fully  equal  to  the  best  cane 
sugar  of  the  West  Indies.  The  stalks,  carefully  weighed, 
were  found  to  vary  from  one  and  a  half  to  two  and  a 
half  pounds  English  weight  each,  trimmed  ready  for  the 
mill.  The  seed-head,  which  is  very  large  and  beautiful, 
is  generally  from  twelve  to  eighteen  inches  in  length, 
containing  many  thousands  of  fine  plump  seeds,  of  a 
sandy  yellow  color,  strongly  held  by  a  sheath  which 
partially  envelops  them. 

"  E-a-na-moodee1"1  is  the  next  in  size,  and  is  very  simi- 
lar, both  in  habit  and  value,  to  the  last.  It  attains  a 
height  of  twelve  to  thirteen  feet,  but  is  not  so  coarse  in 
appearance,  nor  does  it  contain  so  much  woody  fiber  as 
the  Virn-bis-chu-a-pa,  but  it  is  rather  softer  and  more 
juicy,  I  having  obtained  from  it  sixty -four  per  cent,  of 


206  THE   AFRICAN   SUGAR    CAN,:. 

juice,  containing  fourteen  per  cent,  of  sugar.  The  stalks 
weigh  from  one  to  two  pounds  when  trimmed  ready  for 
the  mill,  and  I  have  cut  as  many  as  eleven  such  stalks 
from  one  root  or  stool.  The  seed-heads  are  large,  but 
stiff  and  erect,  containing  quantities  of  large  round, 
plump  seeds,  of  a  clear  yellow  color.  In  general,  they 
may  be  said  to  ripen  two  weeks  earlier  than  the  last 
named.  Like  the  Yim-bis-chu-a-pa,  this  variety  rattoons 
in  about  three  to  three  and  a  half  months  after  the  first 
cutting. 

"  E-englia" — This  is  a  fine,  tall  kind,  being  from  ten  to 
twelve  feet  high  when  full  grown,  but  it  is  more  slender 
than  either  of  the  foregoing,  and  exceedingly  graceful  in 
appearance.  It  begins  flowering  in  ninety  days,  and  is 
fully  ripe  three  weeks  after ;  we  wrill  therefore  class  it  at 
four  months.  I  have  had  stalks  weighing  as  much  as 
one  pound  fourteen  ounces  each.  The  largest  commonly 
obtained  may  then  be  estimated  at  two  pounds  weight ; 
yielding,  by  my  poor  little  mill  sixty-eight  per  cent,  of 
juice,  containing  fourteen  per  cent,  of  sugar.  I  have 
obtained  ten  stalks  from  one  stool.  They  rattoon  in 
three  months  after  cutting.  The  seed  head  of  the 
E-engha  is  large  and  very  pretty,  the  seed  being  upon 
long  slender  foot  stalks,  which  are  bent  down  by  the 
weight  of  the  seed,  forming  a  graceful  drooping.  The 
seeds,  which  are  of  a  dull,  yellow  color,  are  rather  long 
and  flat  than  round  and  plump. 

"  Nee-d-zd-nd  "  is  held,  by  the  Zulu-Kaffirs,  to  be  the 
sweetest  of  all  the  imphee  kind  ;  but  I  found  the  Boom- 
vwa-na  and  the  Oom-see-a-na  quite  as  sweet,  and,  in 
my  estimation,  their  juices  are  superior  to  it  in  some 


VARIETIES   OF    THK    IMPHEE.  207 

points.  My  Zulus  have  told  me,  that  under  favorable  cir- 
cumstances, the  Nee-a-za-na  frequently  ripens  in  seventy- 
five  days ;  and  my  head  man  (a  most  intelligent  native 
plowman)  declares  that  he  has  had  them  from  his  own 
land  as  sweet  as  any  sugar  cane.  From  my  own  actual 
experience,  I  found  that  they  ripened  in  about  three 
months,  and  that  they  were  the  softest  and  most  abound- 
ing in  juice  of  any.  With  my  mill  1  obtained  sev- 
enty per  cent,  of  juice,  much  still  remaining  in  the  trash, 
and  the  saccharometer  showed  fifteen  per  cent,  of  sugar 
after  cold  defecation.  This  then  for  European  culture, 
is  a  perfect  gem  of  a  plant,  one  which  will  be  anxiously 
sought  after,  and  very  generally  cultivated,  throughout 
Europe  at  least.  In  two  months  after  the  first  cuttings, 
I  have  had  the  rattoons  six  feet  high  and  in  flower.  The 
ISTee-a-za-na  is  a  very  small  sized  variety,  but  tillers  out 
greatly,  having  sometimes  fifteen  stalks  for  one  root.  I 
have  had  its  stalks  varying  from  four  ounces  to  upwards 
of  twelve  ounces  in  weight ;  but  they  do  grow  rather  larger 
than  this.  It  always  appeared  to  me  that  their  juice  was 
more  mucilaginous  and  abounding  in  feculae  than  the  two 
varieties  I  have  just  mentioned.  The  seed-head  is  very 
bushy  and  bunchy,  and  when  thoroughly  ripe,  the  seeds 
are  large,  round  and  plump. 

"  Boom-vwa-na "  is  a  most  excellent  and  valuable  va- 
riety ;  of  which  I  have  eaten  single  pieces,  containing  cer- 
tainly two  or  three  per  cent,  more  sugar  than  the  average 
juice  obtained  from  large  bundles  of  stalks,  taken  as 
they  come.  This  average  juice  never  contained  less  than 
fifteen  per  cent,  of  sugar,  as  indicated  by  the  saccharom- 
eter, after  the  raw  juice  had  been  sold  defecated;  and 


208  THE   AFRICAN   SUGAR  CANE. 

there  is  a  clearness,  a  brightness,  and  a  genuine  sugar- 
cane sweetness  in  the  juice  of  this  variety,  and  of  the 
Oom-see-a  na,  that  I  very  much  admire.  In  its  growth 
and  general  appearance,  it  is  very  much  like  the  E-en- 
gha;  but  its  stalks  are  brighter  and  more  slender:  its 
leaves  are  not  so  broad,  and  its  seed  vessels  are  upon 
shorter  and  stiffer  foot  stalks.  The  stalks  have  a  pinkish 
red  tint,  which  increases  as  they  approach  maturity,  and 
the  seed  cases  have  a  pink  and  purple  hue  mixed  with 
the  general  yellow  ground.  The  Boom-vwa-na  tillers 
very  much,  giving  from  ten  to  twenty  stalks  for  one  root, 
but  they  seldom  weigh  more  than  one  pound  each.  I 
have  obtained  seventy  per  cent,  of  juice,  which  is  easily 
clarified,  and  makes  a  beautiful  sugar.  The  plant  reaches 
perfection  in  from  three  to  three  and  a  half  months. 

"  Oom-see-a-na"  is  a  peculiarly  marked  variety,  in 
consequence  of  the  purple  or  black  appearance  of  its 
seed-heads,  arising  from  the  sheath  or  seed  cases  being 
of  this  color,  and  not  the  seed  itself.  The  seed  head  is 
very  stiff  and  erect,  with  short,  strong  foot  stalks,  and 
the  seed  is  large,  round,  and  full.  In  time  of  growth, 
and  goodness  of  juice,  it  is  very  similar  to  the  Boom-vwa- 
na  ;  its  stalks  are  small,  but  numerous.  They  both  rat- 
toon  well,  in  three  months,  from  first  cuttings. 

"  tShla-goova  "  is  slightly  inferior  to  the  three  last  men- 
tioned varieties,  but  is  nevertheless  very  valuable,  and 
much  prized  by  the  Zulus.  It  takes  three  and  a  half 
months  to  ripen,  and  becomes  a  tall,  good  sized  plant ; 
but  its  chief  distinction  is  the  exceeding  beauty  and  ele- 
gance of  its  seed  heads.  The  foot  stalks  are  extremely 
long,  which  causes  them  to  have  a  graceful  drooping, 


VARIETIES   OF   THE   IMPHEE.  209 

while  the  seed  cases  or  sheaths,  vary  in  color  from  a  del- 
icate pink  to  a  red,  and  from  a  light  to  a  very  dark  pur- 
ple, but  each  color  very  bright  and  glistening,  forming 
on  the  whole  an  extremely  beautiful  appearance." 

"  Shla-goo-ndee" — This  is  a  sweet  and  good  variety, 
and  under  favorable  conditions  produces  fine  sized  stalks. 
The  seed  heads  are  very  stiff  and  erect,  and  the  seed 
vessels  are  compact,  and  very  close.  It  usually  takes 
three  and  a  half  months  to  reach  maturity,  and  it  rattoons 
very  quickly,  as  the  following  memorandum  of  my  diary 
will  show : 

"  December  13th.  Cut  down  a  small  patch  of  imphee, 
and  dug  up  the  ground  for  the  purpose  of  planting  arrow- 
root, but  some  of  the  imphee  not  being  entirely  eradicated 
sprung  up  afresh,  some  roots  having  fifteen  stalks  each. 
On  the  18th  of  February,  one  of  them  (Shla-goon-dee)  was 
upwards  of  six  feet  in  height,  with  a  thick  stalk,  and  the 
seed  head  just  thrown  out,  being  only  two  months  and  five 
days  from  its  being  cut  down  and  apparently  destroyed." 
This  bunch  of  seed  I  gathered  during  the  first  week  in 
March,  and  I  have  it  now  in  England. 

"  Zim-moo-ma-na." — This  is  likewise  a  sweet  and  good 
variety,  with  seed  heads  upright  and  compact,  and  fine 
plump  seeds,  very  numerous. 

"E-loih-la,"  "  Boo-ee-ana,"  "  Koom-ba-na,"  "  &e-en-gla," 
" Zimba-za-na"  and  " E-thlo-sa"  form  the  remainder  of 
the  fifteen  varieties,  each  differing  slightly  from  the  others 
in  its  saccharine  qualities  as  well  as  in  appearance,  but 
still  easily  distinguished  from  each  other  by  any  one 
who  has  studied  them.  I  do  not  see  the  necessity  of 
entering  at  present  into  further  detail  in  regard  to  the 


210  THE   AFEICAX    SUGAR   CAXE. 

shades  of  difference,  as  the  larger  edition  of  this  work 
will  contain  all  such  particulars.   . 

I  have  before  remarked,  that  all  the  varieties  are 
known  (from  the  Cape  Colony  to  Delagoa  Bay)  under 
the  general  Zulu-Kaffir  name  of  Imphee,  which  name  is 
likewise  generally  used  by  the  Europeans,  who  some- 
times also  call  it  the  Kaffir  Sugar  Cane,  from  the  circum- 
stance of  the  Kaffirs  growing  it  round  their  kraals,  to 
eat,  as  they  do  the  real  sugar  cane ;  but  I  never  met  a 
single  European  who  could  tell  one  description  of  imphee 
from  another,  not  even  among  those  who  have  been 
in  the  Colony  ten  or  twenty  years. 

The  following  points  are  particularly  striking,  namely 
1st.  The  Zulus  never  (to  the  best  of  my  knowledge  and 
belief)  cultivate  it  for  its  grain,  or  for  any  other  pur- 
pose than  for  its  sweet  juice,  which  they  obtain  by 
chewing  the  stalk. 

2d.  Whilst  ripening  its  seed  the  birds  never  attack  it 
whereas  it  requires  great  vigilance  to  preserve  the 
seeds  of  the  Kaffir  Corn  (Guinea  Corn)  or  Sorghum 
vulgare,  from  their  pertinacious  voracity.  So  much  is 
this  the  case,  that  I  do  not  think  I  lost  a  single  seed 
from  the  birds,  whilst  from  the  Kaffir  Corn  there  is 
no  keeping  them  off.  The  Kaffirs  say  this  is  always 
so. 

As  the  Kaffirs  cultivate  the  imphee  merely  for  its 
juice,  they  never  allow  any  more  to  ripen  than  is  neces- 
sary for  the  next  year's  planting  ;  but  soon  after  the  seed 
head  appears,  they  pull  it  off,  by  giving  it  a  smart  jerk 
upwards.  By  this  means  they  argue  that  the  plant  per- 
fects the  elaboration  of  its  juices  and  becomes  much 


VARIETIES   OF    THE    IMPHEE.  211 

sweeter,  instead  of  forming  seed  at  the  expense  of  its  sac- 
charine matter. 

This,  no  doubt,  is  to  a  certain  extent  perfectly  reason- 
able, and  would  be  very  successful,  if  the  plant  could  be 
prevented  from  expending  its  saccharine  strength  in  its 
natural  efforts  to  reproduce  itself,  but  so  imperative  is  the 
great  law  of  nature  that  immediately  the  seed  is  removed, 
the  eye  or  bud  belonging  to  every  joint  along  the  stem 
begins  forthwith  to  swell,  and  in  a  few  short  days  will 
have  shot  out  a  foot  or  more  in  length,  crowned  with 
small  seed  heads,  having  three  or  four,  some  three  to  six, 
side-shoots  with  seed  heads  along  the  stalk,  to  replace  the 
one  main  head  removed. 

My  own  experience  therefore  led  me  to  doubt  very 
much  the  expediency  of  thus  running  counter  to  nature's 
laws ;  and  eventually  I  abstained  altogether  from  remov- 
ing the  seed  heads,  fancying  that  I  gained  rather  than 
lost  in  saccharine  quantity  by  my  noninterference.  I 
then  removed,  in  many  instances,  these  eyes  with  my 
penknife,  but  the  plant  forthwith  sent  up  a  number  of 
fresh  sprouts  from  the  roots  to  balk  me,  so  I  gave  it  up. 
A  knowledge  of  this  fact  is  very  important  in  studying 
the  subject  of  rattooning. 

The  description  I  have  given  will  suffice  to  show  the 
comparative  value  of  the  different  kinds  of  imphee,  and 
it  will  be  apparent  to  the  meanest  capacity  that  the  suc- 
cessful cultivation  of  this  plant  for  sugar  making  in  the 
greater  portion  of  Europe,  depends  almost  entirely  upon 
the  selection  of  the  proper  variety. 

The  capricious  character  of  the  summer  in  Europe  is 
well  known!  Very  hot  and  even  tropical  weather  may 


212  THE  AFRICAN  SUGAR  CAJSTE. 

at  times  be  suddenly  varied  by  a  few  days  of  cold,  raw, 
wet,  and  windy  weather,  throwing  back  and  greatly  re- 
tarding the  growth  of  these  plants,  thereby  changing  the 
three,  and  three  and  a  half,  or  four  months  required 
under  altogether  favorable  circumstances  into  a  much 
longer  time,  and  thus  perhaps  obtaining  really  no 
thorough  ripening  of  the  plant  after  all. 

But,  on  the  other  hand,  if  we  plant  only  of  those  vari- 
eties requiring  from  two  and  a  half  to  three  months  of 
continuous  warm  weather,  we  render  the  success  of  the 
cultivation  as  nearly  certain  as  we  well  can. 

The  introduction  of  unsuitable  varieties  into  Europe 
has  been,  in  my  estimation,  the  one  great  reason  of  their 
failure  hitherto  ;  and  in  this  belief,  I  hold  the  Nee-a-za-na, 
Boom-vwa-na,  and  Oom-se-a-na  to  be  peculiarly  valuable 
for  our  European  cultivation. 

The  imphee  is  a  tall,  slender,  and  very  elegant  plant, 
its  foliage  being  light  and  graceful,  and  its  tints  bright 
and  varied  in  the  different  stages  of  its  growth.  It  ex- 
hales a  perfume  at  once  strong  and  agreeable,  with  some- 
thing approaching  that  of  rich  new  honey. 


CULTIVATION,  INCLUDING  SOILS,  CLIMATE  AND  SEASONS. 

CLIMATE. — It  may  be  safely  stated  as  an  indisputable 
fact,  that  wherever  maize  or  Indian  corn  will  grow  and 
ripen  its  seed,  imphee  will  likewise  grow  and  elaborate 
its  juice  so  as  to  be  suitable  for  sugar  making,  bearing  in 
mind  always  that  in  as  much  as  the  maize  comprises  va- 
rieties which  require  five  months,  and  others  which 
require  only  three  months,  so  in  like  manner  does  the 


CULTIVATION.  213 

imphee  include  those  varieties  requiring  four  and  a  half 
months,  and  others  again  which  ripen  in  two  and  a  half 
and  three  months  only. 

This  is  a  very  essential  fact  to  be  remembered  in  order 
to  adapt  in  all  cases  the  variety  to  the  peculiar  character 
of  the  locality ;  and  I  believe  that  no  explanation,  how- 
ever lengthy,  could  more  accurately  define  the  climatic 
range  of  the  imphee  than  simply  classing  it  with  maize 
in  this  respect. 

In  Northern  Europe,  and  in  numerous  other  parts  of 
the  world,  no  kind  of  maize  can  be  profitably  cultivated 
but  those  which  ripen  their  seed  within  ninety  days 
from  planting ;  and  it  will  be  found  that  in  all  such 
localities  no  other  variety  of  imphee  can  be  successfully 
employed  but  such  as  ripen  their  juices  within  the  same 
short  period.  But  what  truly  enormous  range  does  this 
climatic  adaptation  give  us !  It  comprises,  in  fact,  every 
country  of  the  earth  that  can  afford  three  months  of  hot 
summer  weather.  It  does  not  even  exclude  Canada  or 
Russia. 

But  as  we  draw  nearer  and  nearer  to  the  equator,  the 
gradual  lengthening  of  the  summer  season,  until  indeed 
winter  is  unknown,  affords  a  longer  and  longer  growing 
time,  so  that  at  last,  instead  of  one  crop,  we  can  obtain 
two,  three,  ay,  and  even  four  crops  in  one  year. 

It  is  evident,  likewise,  that  the  longer  the  summer  or 
warm  weather  extends,  the  greater  scope  exists  for  the 
cultivation  of  the  larger  and  more  productive  varieties 
that  require  a  longer  time  for  their  perfect  development. 

The  small  measure  of  temporary  success  which  is  said 
to  have  attended  the  attempts  made  in  1785,  by  Signoi 


214  'I  HE   AFRICAN    SI 'GAR    CANE. 

Ardumo,  of  Florence,  to  introduce  varieties  of  the  ffolcus 
Saccharatus  into  European  cultivation,  and  their  ultimate 
failure  and  consequent  total  disuse,  arose  from  the  simple 
circumstance  of  his  having  unfortunately  lighted  upon 
varieties  which  required  too  long  a  period  for  their  per 
feet  maturity  to  suit  the  short  and  variable  summer  of 
Europe. 

I  cannot  impress  this  important  point  too  strongly 
upon  the  attention  of  my  readers,  for  on  it,  in  fine,  de- 
pends the  success  or  failure  of  the  whole  cultivation  for 
the  purposes  of  sugar  making.  In  tropical  climates  the 
planter  is  of  course  free  to  choose  whichever  variety  his 
fancy  or  his  experience  in  time  to  come,  may  lead  him 
to  prefer :  nor  can  any  set  rule  be  laid  down  which  he 
must  of  necessity  follow. 

It  is  to  be  supposed  that  he  will  select  those  varieties 
which  will  not  only  yield  him  a  large  return  per  acre, 
but  will  afford  him  an  extended  period  for  his  manufac- 
turing operations,  instead  of  all  becoming  ripe  together. 

SOIL. — Imphee  will  grow  well  and  produce  sugar 
abundantly  in  a  great  variety  of  soils ;  and  in  this  res- 
pect it  is  very  similar  to  the  real  sugar  cane ;  but  among 
the  many  advantages  which  it  has  over  its  great  rival, 
the  perfect  immunity  it  enjoys  from  the  attack  of  white 
ants  is  one  much  too  important  to  pass  over  without 
remark. 

In  the  colony  of  Natal,  on  the  south-east  coast  of 
Africa,  the  white  ant  is  as  numerous,  and  fully  as  des- 
tructive, as  it  is  in  India  ;  consequently,  none  but  low- 
lying,  swampy  grounds  can  be  ;ised  in  that  colony  for 
sugar  cane  cultivation  ;  and  this  fact  places  a  restriction 


CULTIVATION.  215 

upon  its  extensive  culture  in  Natal,  which  no  human  art 
can  overcome.  But  such  an  affliction  does  not  extend  to 
the  imphee.  On  the  contrary,  the  white  ants  (although 
swarming  in  the  soil)  never  touch  these  plants.  I  have 
grown  a  fine  crop  of  imphee  on  a  sandy  hill  top,  where 
it  would  have  been  utterly  impossible  to  grow  sugar 
cane,  on  account  of  the  white  ants. 

This  seems  a  small  matter  to  dwell  upon,  but  in  reality 
it  is  of  the  utmost  importance  to  Natal,  India  generally, 
the  Straits  (Malacca)  settlements,  and  to  every  other 
country  wherein  that  insect  scourge  exists ;  because  it 
admits  of  sugar  being  produced  from  the  imphee  on 
millions  and  millions  of  acres  which  are  totally  unsuited 
for  the  sugar  cane. 

This  simple  fact  alone  is  calculated  to  enhance  the 
price  of  land  in  Natal  and  the  Cape  Colony  to  an  immense 
extent,  and  it  will  have  the  same  effect  in  many  other 
countries. 

I  have  introduced  the  subject  of  white  ants  in  this 
place,  because  in  trying  of  soils  suitable  for  the  sugar 
cane,  it  is  absolutely  necessary  to  exclude  all  those  in- 
fested by  white  ants,  whereas  in  the  culture  of  the  imphee 
their  presence  is  of  no  consequence. 

In  rich  alluvial  soils,  in  good  light  brick  mold,  in 
loamy  soils,  and,  indeed,  in  almost  every  good  soil  in 
which  there  is  a  fair  admixture  of  vegetable  mould,  the 
imphee  delights,  and  will  grow  famously  with  sufficient 
moisture. 

Plenty  of  vegetable  mold,  strong  heat  and  light,  and 
considerable  moisture,  form  the  great  essentials  to  the  full 
development  of  the  plant,  and  the  perfect  elaboration  of 


216  THE   AFRICAN   SUGAR   CANE. 

its  juice,  so  as  to  yield  its  maximum  quantity  of  saccha- 
rine matter. 

If,  after  a  season  of  long-continued  showery  weather, 
a  period  of  dry  weather  occurs  just  as  it  ripens,  then 
the  juice  is  more  especially  abundant,  and  rich  in 
sugar.  - 

Soils  highly  manured  with  animal  manure,  or,  in  fact, 
with  any  which  abound  in  ammonia  and  other  saline 
substances,  tend  to  the  formation  of  a  large,  luxuriant 
plant,  but  its  juice  under  such  circumstances  is  so  muci- 
laginous and  saline  as  to  render  it  extremely  unsuitable 
for  sugar  manufacture,  hence  such  treatment  should  be 
studiously  avoided. 

The  same  rule  applies  in  the  case  of  the  sugar  cane, 
beet  root,  and  other  sugar-yielding  plants  ;  and  if  it  be 
violated,  the  result  is  certain  to  be  disappointment  and 
vexation. 

MODE  OF  CULTURE. — I  have,  in  some  instances,  soaked 
the  seed  of  the  imphee  for  twenty -four  and  even  forty- 
eight  hours,  in  warm  water,  previous  to  planting  them, 
in  order  to  expedite  their  germination,  as  seeds  so  treated 
will,  in  warm,  moist  weather,  be  up  in  four -days  after- 
wards ;  whereas,  being  planted  (during  showery  weather) 
without  this  assistance,  they  usually  take  six  or  seven 
days  for  sprouting.  If,  after  planting,  dry  weather  sets 
in,  they  will,  however,  require  ten  or  even  fourteen  days 
to  appear  above  ground;  but  by  being  well  soaked 
beforehand  this  casualty  is  materially  obviated.  Hence 
I  hold  the  practice  to  be  a  prudent  one. 

The  seed  requires  to  be  very  lightly  covered ;  for,  if 
deeply  set,  it  is  liable  to  rot,  should  much  rain  occur 


CULTIVATION.  217 

immediately  after ;  but  lightly  covered,  it  will  not  be 
injured  by  even  constant  rain. 

I  have  lost  a  great  deal  of  seed  by  planting  too  deeply, 
and  I  shall,  therefore,  be  very  cautious  never  to  commit 
the  same  error  again.  If  soaked  in  warm  water  for 
twenty -four  hours,  then  planted  in  a  bed,  and  care  taken 
to  keep  them  properly  moist,  we  may  always  calculate 
with  certainty  on  having  them  an  inch  above  ground  in 
four  days  (warm  weather.) 

This  first  start  is  a  great  point  wherever  the  warm 
weather  lasts  only  a  short  time  ;  but  in  no  case  is  it  alto- 
gether unimportant ;  and  it  becomes  a  question  of  no 
small  moment,  whether  in  England  and  some  parts  of 
Northern  Europe  it  would  not  even  be  quite  worth  while 
to  sow  the  seed  under  glass  in  the  first  instance,  and  then 
plant  out  the  young  plants,  before  they  are  a  month  old, 
in  the  open  ground,  where  it  is  intended  they  shall  remain 
for  crop. 

In  this  case,  very  little  more  labor  is  required  than  is 
now  universally  bestowed  on  the  Continent  in  making 
the  beet  root  nursery  beds,  and  subsequent  transplanting 
of  the  young  beets.  My  own  experience  this  season,  in 
England,  has  shown  me  that  even  in  a  small  greenhouse, 
a  prodigious  number  of  young  plants  may  be  raised 
without  any  artificial  heat  whatever,  and  the  plants  arc 
so  hardy  that  they  bear  transplanting  admirably. 

By  this  simple  plan  we  get  over  the  difficulties  opposed 
to  us  in  England  by  late  frosts  and  cold,  nipping  winds. 
for  we  can  commence  transplanting  in  June,  and  thus 
allow  June,  July,  August,  and  part  of  September,  it 
needed,  for  their  growth,  which  my  experiments  this 
10 


218  THE  AFRICAN  SUGAR  CANE. 

season  have  clearly  demonstrated  to  be  quite  sufficient. 
If  it  be  objected  that  this  plan  entails  more  than  ordinary 
trouble,  I  answer  it  also  insures  the  safety  of  a  valuable 
crop,  a  consideration  of  no  small  importance. 

It  must  be  remembered  that  every  seed  will,  under 
favorable  circumstances,  "  tiller  "  out  so  largely  as  to 
have  from  ten  to  twenty  stalks  or  canes  (as  I  shall  hence- 
forth call  them)  forming  a  large  stool,  and  occupying 
a  considerable  space. 

I  have  found  that  rows  three  feet  apart,  with  plants 
twelve  inches  from  each  other  along  the  rows  (being 
about  14,000  per  acre),  inmost  cases,  was  a  very  suitable 
distance  to  plant  them;  but  the  ever- varying  circum- 
stances of  soil,  climate,  and  seasons,  added  to  the  differ- 
ences between  the  larger  and  the  smaller  varieties  of  the 
imphee,  must  naturally  suggest  corresponding  differences 
in  the  planting  distances. 

I  have  had  the  Nee-a-za-na  in  rows  only  two  feet,  and 
again  in  rows  two  and  a  half  feet  apart ;  but  I  will  not 
venture  to  say  that  in  all  cases  such  close  planting  is 
proper. 

In  planting  along  the  rows,  wherever  the  plants  are 
too  thick,  they  can  always  be  thinned  out  during  their 
early  growth. 

The  great  objection  to  the  adoption  of  close  rows  is  the 
very  serious  one  arising  from  the  difficulty  of  cleaning 
and  digging  between  them,  which  is  so  desirable  and  so 
very  conducive  to  their  vigorous  growth  and  perfect 
development;  for,  in  common  with  almost  all  other 
plants,  the  imphee  likes  to  have  the  soil  loosened  and 
moved  about  around  its  roots. 


CULTIVATION".  219 

I  suppose  that  it  is  almost  unnecessary  to  observe  that, 
although  it  likes  abundance  of  moisture  in  the  soils 
whereon  it  is  growing,  yet  it  has  a  decided  objection  to 
stagnant  water  being  around  its  roots.  As  the  plant 
progresses  towards  maturity,  it  throws  up  its  graceful 
flower,  which  very  speedily  is  transformed  into  a  seed 
head,  most  abundantly  covered,  or  rather  laden,  with  grain. 

In  the  last  chapter  I  alluded  to  the  Kaffir  custom  of 
removing  these  seed  heads  shortly  after  they  appear,  and 
I  can  only  repeat  the  doubt  I  there  expressed,  whether, 
by  so  doing,  we  may  not  really  lose  more  than  we  gain. 

When  allowed  to  perfect  its  seeds,  the  grain  is  gene- 
rally plump  and  full  of  fine,  white  flour,  which  I  believe 
is  wholesome  and  nutritious,  and  might  enter  largely 
into  general  consumption. 

This,  in  itself,  constitutes  a  feature  much  in  favor  of 
allowing  it  to  ripen  its  seed;  and,  in  a  more  general 
sense,  is  highly  important. 

Notwithstanding  my  numerous  unsuccessful  attempts 
some  years  ago  to  impregnate  or  fecundate  the  flowers  of 
the  sugar  cane,  so  as  to  obtain  a  seed  which  would  ger- 
minate and  produce  sugar  cane,  yet  I  cannot  help  cling- 
ing to  this  plant  (imphee)  as  the  only  remaining  hope  we 
now  have  of  effecting  this  interesting  object.  I  have  al- 
ready taken  measures  to  have  new  flowers  of  the  sugar 
cane  brought  into  immediate  and  continued  contact  with, 
those  of  the  imphee,  so  as  to  ascertain  for  a  certainty 
whether  the  sugar  cane  will  thereby  be  induced  to  perfect 
its  seed,  and,  on  the  other  hand,  whether  the  pollen  of 
the  cane  flowers  will  produce  any  beneficial  or  other 
change  hi  the  character  of  the  imphee  seed. 


220  THE  AFRICAN   SUGAR  CANE. 

This  is  a  question  of  sufficient  interest  to  engage  the 
attention  of  every  scientific  and  inquiring  mind,  as  it  com- 
prehends that  which  is  interesting,  and  that  which  may 
be  of  great  practical  utility  to  the  world  at  large. 

When  the  seeds  of  the  imphee  are  ripe  or  perfectly 
full,  it  is  the  custom  of  the  Zulu-Kaffirs  to  string  them  up 
in  the  sun  and  air  for  a  few  days,  then  to  hang  them  up 
in  their  huts,  so  that  they  may  have  the  full  benefit  of 
the  smoke,  which  serves  to  keep  them  entirely  dry,  and 
likewise  preserves  the  seed  from  the  attacks  of  insects,  so 
that  they  may  be  thus  kept  perfectly  good  for  a  series  of 
years,  if  necessary.  I  like  this  plan  so  much  that  I 
adopted  it  in  all  its  integrity,  and  can  honestly  recom- 
mend it  to  others.* 

THE  PLANT :  ITS  PRODUCTION  AND  ITS  VALUE. 

It  will  seem,  from  what  I  have  already  said,  that  the 
canes  of  the  imphee  are  much  smaller  and  much  lighter 
than  the  stalks  of  the  real  sugar  cane ;  but  at  the  same 
time,  it  must  be  remembered  that  the  foliage  is  not  nearly 
so  large  nor  so  dense  as  that  of  the  sugar  cane ;  conse- 
quently, the  plants  can  stand  very  much  closer  together 
on  the  land,  and  thus  make  up  in  number  for  their 
smaller  weight  individually. 

Thus,  on  an  acre,  if  we  have  only  14,000  roots  or 
stools,  each  stool  will  produce  from  five  to  twenty  canes, 
varying  in  weight  from  a  quarter  of  a  pound  to  1£ 

*  It  is  worthy  of  remark  that  the  natives  of  Upper  Egypt  call  the 
sorghums  Baalee  or  Doura ;  whereas,  the  Zulu-Kaffir  name  for  the 
same  plant  is  Mabaalee,  the  ma  being  simply  a  prefix  which  they  give 
to  a  great  number  of  their  proper  names. 


PRODUCTION  AND  VALUE.  221 

pounds,  each  affording,  on  a  low  average,  therefore,  wo 
will  say,  84,000  canes,  weighing  65,000  pounds,  capable 
of  yielding  seventy -five  per  cent,  of  juice  ;  but  if  taken  at 
only  seventy  per  cent.,  then  giving  44,100  pounds  of 
juice,  containing  fifteen  per  cent,  of  sugar. 

If  from  this  quantity  of  juice  the  manufacturer  cannot 
manage  to  produce  two  tons  of  good,  dry,  fair-colored 
sugar,  then  he  must  be  unskillful  indeed. 

One  English  acre  of  imphee,  grown  under  favorable  - 
circumstances,  will  yield  fully  two  tons  of  dry  sugar,  and 
even  more ;  but  I  will  not  estimate  the  average  return  at 
more  than  1£  tons  of  fair,  dry  sugar,  per  acre,  which  it 
should  most  undoubtedly  produce  as  an  average  crop. 

For  the  information  of  those  planters  who  are  com- 
pelled to  use  their  cane  trash  or  bagasse,  I  may  say  that 
the  trash  of  the  imphee  can  be  used  precisely  in  the  same 
manner,  although  its  proper  use  really  is  as  a  manure  to 
return  to  the  soil. 

The  leaves  and  long  tops  of  the  plants  form  excellent 
food  for  horned  cattle,  horses,  mules,  sheep,  etc.,  being 
much  more  delicate  than  the  coarse  leaves  of  the  sugar 
cane. 

If  the  plants  are  suffered  to  mature  their  seed,  an  acre 
of  land  would  furnish  a  large  quantity  of  grain,  which 
may  be  used  merely  as  grain  for  feeding  animals  and 
poultry,  or  in  the  form  of  flour,  of  excellent  quality,  as 
food  for  mankind. 

I  c'onsider  twenty  bushels  of  this  grain  per  acre  a  very 
low  average  crop,  but  it  is  by  no  means  an  item  to  be 
overlooked  in  calculating  the  value  of  the  plant  to  Europe 
and  to  the  world  generally. 


222  THE  AFBICAN   SUGAR  CAXE. 

Having  shown  the  value  of  one  crop  of  imphee,  per- 
haps it  would  be  well  to  repeat  that  this  one  crop  of  im- 
phee is  off  the  ground  in  from  three  to  four  months  from 
the  day  the  seed  was  planted ;  and  that,  as  this  comes  off, 
another  crop  is  immediately  springing  up  from  the  same 
roots,  (if  the  weather  will  permit),  to  be  ready  in  another 
three  months ;  and  even  a  third  crop  will  be  produced, 
provided  the  weather  is  warm  enough. 

We  must  now  compare  the  imphee  with  its  European 
rival,  the  beet  root,  which  is  at  present  so  largely  grown 
for  its  sugar. 

I  find  that  there  is  now  manufactured  throughout  the 
whole  continent  of  Europe  about  160,000  tons  of  beet- 
root sugar,  obtained  from  about  400,000  English  acres  of 
land,  forming  an  average  of  something  like  eight  hun- 
dredweight of  good  sugar  per  English  acre. 

Besides  the  sugar  obtained  from  the  beet  root,  we  must 
take  into  consideration  its  other  products,  such  as  potash 
and  alcohol,  yielded  by  its  molasses,  and  the  quantity  of 
food  for  cattle,  furnished  by  its  leaves  and  by  its  refuse 
pulp. 

France  alone  has  now  three  hundred  and  thirty-two 
manufactories  of  beet-root  sugar,  producing  this  year 
about  75,000,000  kilogrammes,  (rather  more  than 
158,300,000  pounds  English)  of  syrup,  besides  molasses. 
M.  Du  Brontfaut  declares,  that  by  a  certain  process  of  his 
own,  there  may  be  obtained  from  this  molasses  (after  the 
alcohol  has  been  taken  from  it  by  distillation)  a  quantity 
of  potash  equal  in  weight  to  one  sixth  of  the  sugar  pro- 
duced from  the  beet  root. 

It  is,  however,  q-iite  evident  that  this  quantity  of  pot- 


PRODUCTION   AND   VALUE.  223 

ash  can  only  exist  in  these  roots  by  reason  of  the  excess 
of  saline  matter  in  the  soil  whereon  they  are  grown.  In 
the  great  majority  of  cases  this  injurious  excess  of  saline 
substance  arises  from  the  quantity  of  manure  administered 
to  the  soil,  with  a  view  of  obtaining  a  very  large  and 
heavy  crop  of  beets — a  result  certainly  realized,  but  at  a 
great  sacrifice  of  saccharine  matter  in  the  beets. 

Viewing  all  these  products,  however,  in  the  most  favor- 
able light  possible,  still  no  reasonable  being  can  maintain 
or  one  moment  that  the  produce  obtainable  from  one 
acre  of  beet  root  is  any  way  equal  to  that  derivable  from 
an  acre  of  imphee,  namely  1^  tons  of  fair  sugar,  and  its 
proportionate  quantity  of  molasses,  equal  in  every  respect 
to  the  cane  sugar  molasses. 

The  next  point  of  comparison  is  the  expense  of  culti- 
vation and  manufacture  ;  and  I  am  firmly  convinced  that 
,hese  are  entirely  in  favor  of  the  imphee,  for,  at  the  pres- 
3nt  moment,  the  practice  is  almost  universal  on  the  con- 
tinent of  sowing  the  seed,  in  the  first  instance,  in  a  seed 
bed,  or  nursery,  from  which  they  are  afterwards  drawn 
and  planted  out  in  the  fields.  I  do  not  say  that  this 
common  practice  is  imperative,  nor  do  I  object  to  it  on  the 
score  of  economy  or  any  other  grounds,  but  I  merely  state 
that  such  is  the  usual  custom.  The  period  from  sowing 
che  seed  to  harvesting  the  beets,  varies,  according  to  my 
information,  from  seven  to  eight  months,  a  space  of  time 
just  double  that  required  for  the  perfect  maturity  of  the 
imphee. 

This  prolonged  period  naturally  requires  a  correspond- 
ing addition  of  labor  in  the  cultivation  over  and  above 
that  demanded  by  the  latter. 


224  THE  AFRICAN  SUGAK  CANE. 

But  in  the  manufacture  of  the  two  a  still  greater  dif- 
ference exists  in  favor  of  the  imphee.  The  beets  have  to 
undergo  a  careful  washing,  and  have  their  crowns  and 
roots  cut  off  before  they  are  fit  for  the  manufacturer's 
operations ;  then  they  are  either  rasped  by  machinery  into 
a  complete  pulp,  which  is  afterwards  put  into  a  canvas 
cloth  and  subjected  to  the  action  of  a  hydraulic  or  other 
press,  to  get  out  all  the  juice ;  or  they  are  cut  into  very 
thin  slices,  and  these  are  treated  by  sundry  peculiar  pro- 
cesses, in  order  to  obtain  the  sugar  they  contain  in  as 
pure  a  state  as  possible.  The  saccharine  liquor,  or  ex- 
pressed juice  from  the  canvas  bags,  is  next  chemically 
treated  to  effect  its  defecation,  and  is  afterwards  evaporated 
to  a  certain  density,  run  through  animal  charcoal  filters, 
and  finally  concentrated,  but  only  to  undergo  a  further 
refining,  or  perhaps  double-refining,  as  the  raw  beet  root 
sugar  (such  as  we  may  call  beet  root  muscovado)  is  unfit 
for  general  purposes,  and  therefore  cannot  be  used  for 
common  consumption  as  sugar-cane  muscovado  sugars  are. 

There  are  certainly  many  other  highly  scientific  modes 
of  obtaining  the  sugar  from  beets,  among  which  the  ele- 
gant chemical  process  (at  present  only  partially  applied) 
of  Du  Bronfaut  is  deserving  of  all  honor ;  but  I  confine 
my  remarks  especially  to  those  best  known  and  so  gene 
rally  used  on  the  continent. 

The  manufacture  of  imphee  is,  on  the  other  hand,  ex- 
tremely simple ;  and  the  sugar  produced,  whether  mus- 
covado or  white,  is  not  distinguishable,  even  by  the  best 
judges,  from  the  cane  sugar  of  similar  qualities ;  while 
the  expense  of  manufacture  is  much  less  than  that  of 
beet  root. 


PRODUCTION  AND  VALUE.  225 

The  main  result  of  this  comparison,  apart  from  ex- 
penses for  cultivation  and  manufacture,  may  then  be 
stated : 

Imphee. — Time  of  growth,  three  to  four  months ;  sugar, 
per  acre,  thirty  cwts. ;  molasses  equal  to  cane  molasses. 

Beet  root. — Time  of  growth,  seven  to  eight  months ; 
sugar,  per  acre,  ten  cwts. ;  molasses  very  inferior. 

This,  too,  is  on  the  broad  supposition  that  the  value 
of  the  molasses,  fodder,  etc.,  of  the  one,  equals  that  of  the 
other.  I  venture  to  say  that  the  comparative  value  is  so 
entirely  in  favor  of  the  former,  that  beet  root  culture  will 
gradually  be  relinquished  until  it  becomes  at  length 
totally  neglected. 

We  next  turn  to  the  sugar  cane  as  its  great  rival ;  and 
I  dare  say  I  shall  be  considered  very  bold  in  venturing 
a  comparison,  but  facts  are  stubborn  things,  and  no  really 
sensible  man  will  come  to  a  decision  until  he  has  care- 
fully weighed  the  evidence  on  both  sides. 

The  sugar  cane  is  a  plant  too  well  known  to  need  any 
description  here ;  but  there  are  some  peculiarities  in  re- 
gard to  it  which  must  be  recited,  although  they  are  actual 
truisms : 

1.  It  takes,  according  to  circumstances,  from  twelve  to 
sixteen,  to  eighteen  or  to  twenty  months,  from  the  crop 
being  planted  to  its  ripening. 

2.  Some  very  soft,  juicy   canes,  do  really  contain, 
chemically  speaking,  only  about  ten  per  cent,  of  woody 
fiber  ;  but  an  overwhelming  majority  of  sugar  canes  do 
most  certainly  contain,  practically,  a  much  greater  pro- 
portion, some  eyei)  as  much  as  thirty  per  cent.  1 

10* 


226  THE   AFiUUAN   SUGAli   CANE. 

3.  Fine,  average  cane  juice  contains  eighteen  per  cent, 
of  sugar,  not  more. 

4.  A  good  average  crop  of  sugar  canes  will  weigh  from 
twenty-five  to  thirty  tons  per  acre. 

5.  Canes  are  apt  to  degenerate  so  fast,  that  constant 
recourse  is  had  to  the  expedient  of  exchanging  plant 
tops  between  estates  very  distant  from  each  other. 

6.  The  cane  rattoons  in  twelve  months,  generally,  from 
the  time  of  cutting;  and  each  time  it  rattoons  the  canes 
are  less  juicy,  and  contain  a  greater  amount  of  woody 
fiber  in  proportion. 

These  points  must  be  well  considered : 

1.  During  the  eighteen  months'  growth  what  casualties 
may  not  occur  to  destroy,  or,  at  least,  very  much  injure, 
the  crop:  storms,  severe  drouth,  fire,  and  lastly,  white 
ants !     And  what  sugar  planter  knows  not  the  dire  ex- 
tent of  these  liabilities  ? 

2.  The  large  proportion  of  woody  fiber  contained  in 
rattoons,  and  even  in  plant  canes,  naturally  reduces  very 
much  the  per  centage of  juice;  but  all  rattoons  do  not  so 
abound  in  woody  fiber. 

3.  So  alarming  was  the  degeneracy  of  the  sugar  cane 
in  Jamaica,  that  its  Koyal  Agricultural  Society  and  the 
Society  of  Arts  in  London  sought  all  over  the  world  for 
sugar  cane  seed,  in  the  hopes  of  remedying  this  threaten- 
ing evil. 

Now,  on  the  other  hand,  let  us  look  at  the  imphee  in 
respect  to  those  identical  points. 

1.  It  takes,  as  I  have  already  said,  from  three  months 
to  four  and  a  half  months,  according  to  the  kind  planted, 


PRODUCTION  AND  VALUE.  227 

from  the  time  of  sowing  the  seed  until  it  arrives  at  ma- 
turity; and  it  will  rattoon  twice  or  three  times  after- 
wards, at  intervals  of  three  months  between  each  cutting, 
provided,  of  course,  that  the  warm  weather  permits  their 
continued  rattooning. 

2.  It  is  much  more  juicy  than  the  generalty  of  sugar 
canes,  and  contains  far  less  woody  fiber,  which  does  not 
materially  increase  in  the  rattoons. 

3.  Fine,  average  imphee  juice,  contains  fifteen  percent, 
of  sugar. 

4.  A  good  average  crop  of  imphee  stalks  or  canes  will 
weigh  twenty-five  tons  per  acre. 

5.  Imphee  is  produced  from  the  seed;  therefore,  no 
deterioration  can  occur,  as  in  the  sugar  cane ;  and  the 
seed  may  be  sown  by  means  of  a  drill. 

6.  It  will  yield  a  crop  of  rattoons  six  to  seven  months 
from  the  time  of  the  seed  being  first  sown,  being,  there- 
fore, two  crops  in  that  space  of  time ;  and  will  continue 
rattooning,  if  the  seasons  are  favorable. 

All  these  points  I  have  abundantly  proved  to  be  cor- 
rect ;  and,  when  they  are  acknowledged  by  the  world  at 
large  to  be  really  true,  what,  may  I  ask,  will  become  of 
the  sugar  cane  ? 

What  tropical  planter  will  eventually  refuse  to  lessen 
his  field  risks  arising  from  the  casualties  I  have  named, 
and  simplify  his  cultivation,  knowing,  at  the  same  time, 
that  his  crops  come  to  bear  a  money  value  in  the  market 
in  the  short  space  of  three  to  four  months  ? 

I  venture  to  think  that  he  will,  of  necessity,  be  com- 
pelled to  adopt  the  imphee  and  discard  the  sugar  cane, 
as  a  mere  matter  of  self  preservation ;  for,  although  in 


228  THE  AFEICAN  SUGAR  CANE. 

Europe  we  can,  perhaps,  obtain  only  one  crop  from  the 
land  each  year,  yet  the  cheap  modes  of  cultivation  and 
the  skillful  manufacture  which  will  be  brought  to  bear 
upon  it,  will  be  quite  sufficient  to  run  the  sugar  planter 
off  his  legs. 

From  Canada  to  New  Orleans,  in  America,  we  have  a 
magnificent  range  for  the  growth  of  the  imphee  ;  and  in 
the  southern  states  two  crops  a  year  will  be  obtained,  in 
lieu  of  the  one  miserable  crop  of  cane  sugar  now  realized. 

I  think  that  even  these  extremely  brief  remarks  will 
be  sufficient,  for  the  present,  to  show  the  comparative 
value  of  the  imphee,  sugar  cane,  and  beet  root  for  sugar 
making. 


AMERICAN  NOTES   FOR   1857 
ON  THE  IMPHEE. 

THE  history  of  the  introduction  of  the  imphee  into  the  United 
States  has  substantially  been  given  in  the  historical  portion  of  Part  1. 
That  it  may  be  perfectly  understood  I  will  make  a  condensed  state- 
ment in  this  place.  Mr.  Wray  arrived  in  this  country  in  the  month 
of  March  last,  bringing  with  him  seed  of  each  of  his  varieties  of  im- 
phee, and  samples  of  alcohol  and  sugars  made  from  them.  The 
greater  part  of  the  seed  he  planted  upon  the  estate  of  Governor  J.  H. 
Hammond,  of  South  Carolina  ;  but  portions  were  put  under  cultiva- 
tion by  Mr.  R.  Peters  and  Mr.  J.  Eve,  of  Georgia  ;  Brutus  J.  Clay, 
of  Kentucky  ;  a  gentleman  in  Canada  ;  and  Mr.  D.  Jay  Browne,  of 
the  United  States  Patent  Office.  Of  all  these  lots,  the  only  one  from 
which  any  considerable  part  of  the  crop  was  saved  was  that  of  Mr. 
Hammond.  In  Canada  the  seed  did  not  ripen,  Mr.  Browne's  lot  but 


AMERICAN  NOTES.  229 

partially,  that  of  Mr.  Peters  and  of  Mr.  Eve  were  entirely  mixed  with 
durra*  corn,  and  consequently  not  saved.  Of  Mr.  Clay's  I  give  the 
account  published  by  himself.  The  imphee  seed  brought  by  Mr. 
Wray  was  grown  for  him  by  the  Count  de  Beauregard,  on  his 
estate  at  Hyeres,  France,  and  was  there  packed  and  shipped  direct  to 
America.  By  some  chance  a  large  quantity  of  the  seed  of  durra 
was  sent  mixed  with  the  imphee,  and  was  unsuspectingly  distributed 
by  Mr.  Wray  to  his  several  partners  in  the  adventure  here.  At  Gov- 
ernor Hammond's  urgent  solicitation,  Mr.  Wray  sorted  out  enough 
seed  to  plant  several  acres  of  some  ten  or  more  of  the  choicest 
varieties,  and  these  were  planted  separate  and  apart  from  each  other. 
The  remainder,  ovei*  one  hundred  acres,  was  planted  with  the  seed  just 
as  sent  from  France.  The  result  was  that  before  the  time  of  ripening,  to 
their  great  dismay  they  discovered  that  it  would  be  necessary  to  sacri- 
fice some  six  thousand  five  hundred  bushels  of  this  precious  seed,  and 
the  only  crop  which  could  with  safety  be  disseminated,  and  conscien- 
tiously recommended  by  Governor  Hammond,  was  that  harvested  on 
the  assorted  acres  of  the  ten  or  more  best  varieties.  The  crop  of  Mr. 
Peters  was  utterly  ruined,  as  he  had  not  taken  the  precaution  to  select 
and  plant  separately.  Before  making  arrangements  with  Mr.  Wray, 
he  had  imported  directly  from  Vilmorin,  Andrieux  &  Co.,  of  Paris, 
about  fifteen  pounds  of  what  was  supposed  to  be  a  variety  of  imphee 
named  Vim-bis-chu-a-pa,  at  a  cost  of  $10  per  pound  ;  but  this  turned 
out  to  be  nothing  but  worthless  durra. 

With  that  generosity  which  characterizes  him,  General  Hammond 
declined  receiving  any  share  of  the  profits  from  the  sale  of  the  seed, 
and  presented  to  Mr.  Wray  the  entire  crop  of  the  pure  seed,  amount- 
ing to  about  four  hundred  bushels. 

To  inform  myself  particularly  as  to  the  success  of  this  first  cultiva- 
tion of  the  imphee,  and  to  assist  in  making  sugar  from  it,  I  visited  in 
October  of  1857  the  plantations  of  General  Hammond,  Mr.  Peters, 

*  The  word  durra  has  been  spelt  dourah,  dhurra,  doura  and  donrrha  by  various 
•writers.  In  the  preceding  pages  I  have  adopted  the  spelling  doura  ;  and  Mr.  \\  ray, 

London, 


. 

I  perceive,  has  done  likewise.  The  encyclopedias  of  London,  Johnson,  and  Hooker, 
make  no  mention  whatever  of  the  plant  ;  but  Noah  Webster,  in  his  dictionary,  spells 
it  durra,  and  as  this  is  nearest  to  the  Arabic  derivative,  and  more  correct  on  phonetic 
principles,  I  shall  in  future  adopt  it. 


230  THE   AFRICAN   SUGAR   CANE. 

and  Mr.  Eve.  A  part  of  the  imphees  I  found  mixed  as  above 
stated.  On  the  separate  lots  I  could  see  no  signs  of  a  hybridation 
with  durra  ;  but  on  one  or  two  there  were  straggling  plants  of  some 
variety  of  imphee,  the  seeds  of  which  resembled  those  of  the  lot  with 
which  it  was  mingled.  The  appearance  of  the  various  plants  is  truth- 
fully given  by  Mr.  Wray.  Of  the  comparative  amounts  of  sugar 
which  they  are  capable  of  yielding  I  cannot  speak,  for  our  attempts 
to  produce  it  were  not  successful. 

It  is  comparatively  an  easy  thing  for  northern  and  western  farmers, 
living  adjacent  to  lines  of  railroad,  to  provide  themselves  with  any  sort 
of  machinery  or  apparatus  at  a  moment's  notice  ;  and,  if  breakages 
occur  during  their  operations,  a  competent  mechanic  is  speedily  found 
to  repair  them.  But  such  is  not  the  case  on  an  inland  southern  plan- 
tation ;  and  hence  it  resulted  at  Governor  Hammond's  that,  what  with 
the  novelty  of  the  operations,  breakages  of  the  mill  and  steam  engine, 
quarrels  of  mechanics,  the  late  arrival  of  Mr.  Wray  with  his  seed,  and 
other  things  combined,  no  attempt  was  made  to  "  commence  crop,"  to 
use  the  West  Indian  phrase,  until  the  canes  were  considerably  past 
maturity  ;  and,  after  operations  were  commenced,  breakages  and  acci- 
dents caused  great  confusion  in  the  work,  and  fatal  delays.  Besides  this, 
the  canes  were  grown  upon  a  reclaimed  swamp,  thoroughly  drained, 
and  so  rich  in  soluble  saline  matters,  that  the  crop  of  corn  on  an  ad- 
jacent lot  was,  on  one  measured  acre,  one  hundred  and  eight  bushels. 
Those  who  have  read  my  remarks  upon  the  pernicious  influence  upon 
the  crystallization  of  sugar,  of  soluble  mineral  matters  taken  up  by 
the  cane  juice,  will  not  be  surprised  to  learn  that,  although  the  train 
worked  in  the  most  satisfactory  manner,  and  the  boiling  was  superin- 
tended by  a  negro  sugar  maker  from  Florida,  no  crystallization  of  im- 
phee juice  could  be  obtained. 

Mr.  Wray  found  that  the  proportion  of  salts  of  iron  was  so  great 
in  the  juice,  that  the  single  trial  we  made  with  nut  galls  gave  us  a 
liquid  nearly  as  black  as  ink.  Suffice  it  to  say  that  the  sugar  was  not 
made  :  but,  as  will  be  seen  subsequently,  it  was  not  because  crystal- 
lized sugar  does  not  exist  in  the  imphee. 

Governor  Hammond,  failing  to  produce  sugar,  turned  his  whole  at- 


AMERICAN  NOTES.  231 

tention  to  the  manufacture  of  syrup ;  of  which  he  made  from  the 
imphee  exactly  three  thousand  gallons,  which  will  be  entirely  con- 
sumed on  his  own  estate. 

With  Governor  Hammond  and  Mr.  Wray  I  frequently  tested  the 
juice  by  the  saccharometer.  In  one  case  the  juice  of  the  Boo-e-a-oa 
I  found  to  be  1  Op  Beaume,  which  it  will  be  remembered  indicates  no 
less  than  nineteen  per  cent,  of  sugar  in  the  juice.  I  am  convinced 
that  on  favorable  soils,  and  in  suitable  climates,  the  juice  of  the  im- 
phee will  mark  nearly  if  not  quite  as  high  a  saccharine  richness  as  the 
Saccharum  officinarum,  or  tropical  sugar  cane. 

Judging  from  my  observation,  the  imphee  is  more  succulent  than 
the  sorgho.  An  experiment  was  made  with  ten  stalks  each  of  sorgho 
and  imphee,  to  test  the  respective  quantities  of  juice.  The  result  was 
that  the  imphee  gave  sixteen  pints,  or  two  gallons;  sorgho  gave 
eleven  pints  ;  a  very  large  per  centage  in  favor  of  imphee.  Imphee 
starts  off  more  rapidly  in  its  spring  growth,  and  will  be  valuable  on 
that  account  for  northern  latitudes.  Many  of  the  imphees  have  also 
a  larger  stalk  than  the  sorgho,  and  smaller  seed  heads,  or  panicles,  and 
will  not  only  give  more  juice  for  distillation  and  sugar  making,  but 
will  not  so  readily  be  prostrated  by  the  winds  of  our  western  prai- 
ries. The  outer  covering  of  the  imphee  stalk  is  thinner  than  that  of 
sorgho,  and  is  consequently  easier  to  crush  in  the  mill. 

Frequent  allusion  is  made  in  the  preceding  pages  of  this  work  to 
the  practice  of  cutting  off  the  seed  heads  to  increase  the  secretion  of 
sugar.  I  saw  many  stalks  at  Mr.  Peters'  thus  treated,  which  had  been 
utterly  ruined.  The  energy  of  the  plant  is  so  great,  that  when  its 
forces  were  diverted  from  the  elaboration  of  starch  in  the  seeds,  the 
bud  at  each  joint  of  the  stalk  threw  out  short  stems,  which  attained  a 
length  of  some  eighteen  inches,  and  attempted  to  produce  miniature 
seed  heads.  The  result  was,  that  the  vitality  which  would  in  the 
natural  course  of  growth  have  produced  a  perfect  plant,  with  a  full 
crop  of  ripe  seed,  was  exhausted  in  the  production  of  monstrosities. 
It  is  sufficiently  well  attested  that  the  ripening  of  the  seed  does  not 
interfere  with  a  maximum  yield  of  sugar. 

Mr.  Peters  found  that  sorgho  planted  on  the  15th  March  ripened 


232  THE  AFRICAN   SUGAR   CANE. 

within  a  week  of  that  planted  on  the  15th  May.    He  had  some  imphee 
ripening  which  had  been  planted  only  ninety  days. 

On  Governor  Hammond's  place  the  Boom-vwa-na  and  Nee-a-za-na 
ripened  the  earliest.  The  former  grows  to  a  height  of  eleven  feet,  but 
the  latter  only  seven.  This  brevity  of  stalk  is,  however,  compensated 
for  by  the  number  of  suckers  which  grow  from  the  stool.  The  Oom- 
se-a-na  and  En-ya-ma  were  thought  to  be  best  for  syrup  making.  The 
Koom-ba-na  grows  about  ten  feet  high,  and  is  very  excellent.  A  new 
variety,  the  Sorgho-ka-baie,  promises  to  be  very  excellent.  I  should 
be  willing  to  plant,  to  a  moderate  extent,  any  one  of  eight  or  ten 
varieties  which  were  saved  by  Mr.  Wray,  and  sold  to  Mr.  Moore. 

NEWS  OF  THE  IMPHEE  FEOM  AFBICA. 

In  the  month  of  September  last  there  appeared  in  the  New  York 
Journal  of  Commerce  a  letter  from  Eev.  H.  A.  Wilder,  an  American 
missionary  at  Umtwalume,  in  Caffraria,  in  which  Mr.  Wilder  states, 
that  considerable  quantities  of  excellent  sugar  have  been  made  from 
imphee  in  that  colony  during  the  past  year.  He  also  says  that  he 
sent  a  small  amount  of  the  seeds  to  friends  in  this  country  some  three 
years  ago ;  but  that  nothing  had  resulted  from  it. 

I  have  had  further  intelligence  of  the  manufacture  of  imphee  sugar 
in  Caflraria  by  Mr.  Wray,  from  Mr.  Charles  H.  Caldcott,  a  merchant 
of  Port  Natal,  who  is  at  present  in  New  York.  This  gentleman 
informs  me  that  he  both  saw  and  tasted  imphee  sugar  in  the  colony, 
and  that  it  does  not  differ  from  the  sugar  made  from  the  ordinary 
cane. 

BESEAECHES  OF  DB.  JACKSON. 

At  the  recent  meeting  of  the  United  States  Agricultural  Society  at 
Washington,  January  13th,  1858,  Dr.  Charles  T.  Jackson  being  called 
upon  to  give  histestimony  upon  the  capability  of  the  imphee  to  pro- 
duce sugar,  stated,  that  he  had  been  employed  by  the  United  States 
Patent  Office  to  make  experiments  upon  both  sorgho  and  imphee. 
Seed  heads  and  stalks  of  imphee  had  been  sent  him  for  examination 


AMERICAN  NOTES.  233 

by  Mr.  Browne,  of  the  Patent  Office  ;  lie  had  given  them  minute  study, 
and  had  sent  in  an  official  report  to  the  government.  The  juice  of 
imphee  would  give  nine  per  cent,  of  true  cane  sugar,  and  six  per  cent, 
additional  of  glucose.  It  would  give  twelve  per  cent,  of  alcohol  or 
proof  spirits,  which  was  peculiarly  suitable  for  the  manufacture  of 
brandy,  because  of  an  agreeable  aroma  which  it  contained.  This  very 
large  yield  of  alcohol  which  it  and  the  sorgho  would  afford,  would 
materially  affect  a  very  important  interest.  Three  fourths  of  the 
alcohol  made  ic  Massachusetts  last  year  was  consumed  in  the  manu- 
facture of  burning  fluids,  and  in  mechanical  and  chemical  operations  ; 
and  if  these  plants  can  afford  us  a  readier  and  cheaper  supply  of 
alcohol  than  the  cereals  it  is  a  very  strong  recommendation  for  their 
culture.  His  official  report  will  be  found  in  the  next  Report  of  the 
United  States  Patent  Office. 

The  following  letters,  from  Governor  Hammond  to  Mr.  Wray,  will 
fully  explain  his  estimate  of  the  value  of  the  imphee. 

LETTEE8  FEOM  GOV.  HAMMOND. 

"  DEAR  SIR —  "  EEDCLIFFE,  November  26th,  1857. 

"  I  received  to-day,  the  Soutluern  Cultivator  for  December.  It  con- 
tains two  letters  from  Mons.  Vilmorin,  denouncing  your  imphees  in  a 
manner  that  appears  to  me  malicious  ;  and,  as  I  know  his  statements 
are  false  as  regards  the  imphee  grown  in  this  latitude,  I  deem  it  due 
to  truth  and  to  you,  to  give  my  testimony  against  them.  Tour  imphee 
came  here  too  late  to  allow  a  perfectly  satisfactory  comparison  to  be 
instituted  between  that  and  sorgho.  But  I  do  not  remember  that  in 
any  attempt  we  made  to  compare  them,  the  results  were  in  favor  of 
the  sorgho.  Certainly,  most  of  the  varieties  of  imphee  have  a  larger 
stalk  and  produce  more  juice  ;  none,  I  believe,  are  smaller.  As  to 
'  red  rot,'  which  so  seriously  affected  the  sorgho,  I  do  not  think  it  ap- 
peared at  all  in  more  than  one  kind  of  imphee,  and  that  had  ripened 
long  before  we  reached  it  in  our  operations.  I  am  sure  the  im- 
phee is  not  more  subject  to  the  '  red  rot,'  than  the  sorgho,  and  was 
not  so  much  affected  by  it  this  year  here.  As  to  the  per  centage  of 


234  THE   AFKICAN    SUGAR    CANE. 

saccharine  matter  in  the  juice,  I  saw  the  saccharometer  mark  eighteen 
once,  and  frequently  fourteen  to  sixteen  per  cent,  of  sugar  I  believe 
the  sorgho  never  reached  seventeen  per  cent. 

"  From  my  experience  of  this  year,  I  should  be  unwilling  to  say  that 
the  imphee  is  decidedly  superior  to  the  sorgho.  But  I  am  equally  un- 
prepared to  say  that  any  single  variety  of  imphee  is  inferior  to  the 
sorgho.  I  shall  try  all  of  them  again  and  again  before  I  determine 
which  is  the  very  best. 

"  As  you  say  Mr.  Vilmorin  obtained  no  pure  imphee  seed  from  you, 
I  am  inclined  to  tnink  he  has  not  made  his  experiments  with  pure  seed. 
Certainly  the  seed  he  sent  to  this  country  last  spring  for  imphee,  at 
$10  per  pound,  was  thoroughly  mixed  with  durra  corn  ;  and  one  par- 
cel that  he  sent  as  Vim-bis-chu-a-pa,  was  all  durra,  as  I  am  informed. 

"  I  have  not,  as  you  well  know,  any  interest  in  the  sale  of  imphee 
seed,  or  anything  made  from  imphee,  and  you  are  well  aware  of  my 
aversion  to  having  my  name  in  the  papers,  but  you  can  show  this  letter 
to  any  one  you  please,  and,  if  absolutely  necessary,  publish  it.  I  shall 
probably  put  the  substance  in  the  next  Cultivator.  Tours  very  truly, 

"  L.  WEAY,  Esq."  «  J.  H.  HAMMOND." 

The  following  is  an  extract  from  a  letter  to  my  publisher  from  Gov. 
Hammond,  in  answer  to  a  request  that  he  would  give  his  opinion  as  to 
the  value  of  the  different  varieties  of  imphee. 

"  WASHINGTON,  D.  C.,  January  13th,  1858. 

"  *  *  *  I  think  these  seeds  well  worth  distributing.  They 
produce  a  sugar  cane  at  least  equal  to  the  sorgho  in  all  respects,  and 
some  of  them  are  twice  the  size.  I  am  inclined  to  think  we  shall  ult- 
imately find  several  of  them  (ripening  at  different  periods,)  supersed- 
ing the  sorgho  altogether. 

"  I  plant  sixty  acres  of  the  cane  this  year — of  these,  four  will  be 
planted  in  sorgho,  and  the  remainder  in  imphee.  *  *  * 

(Signed)        "  J.  H.  HAMMOND.  " 
LETTER  FROM  HON.  BRUTUS  J.  CLAY. 

"  DEAR  SIR—  "  PARIS,  KY.,  November  23d,  1857. 

"  I  planted  imphee  on  the  23d  day  of  May  last.    I  broke  the  ground 


AMERICAN    NOTES.  235 

twice,  and  planted  the  hills  three  by  four  feet  apart,  two  and  three  seeds 
in  a  hill ;  about  three  fourths  of  it  grew,  hence  it  was  rather  thin  on  the 
ground.  It  did  not  well  mature  before  frost ;  the  middle  of  October. 

"  I  think  the  average  product  of  stalk  was  no  more  than  eight  feet. 
They  were,  however,  one  third  larger  than  the  sorgho,  and  contained 
much  more  juice,  of  a  quality  very  similar  to  that  of  the  latter.  It  stood 
up  well,  large  at  the  bottom  and  tapers  to  the  top  :  is  not  liable  to  be 
blown  down  by  the  wind. 

"  The  sorgho  I  planted  about  the  13th  of  May.  It  came  up  well, 
producing  stalks  small  and  slender,  ten  to  twelve  feet  high,  very  apt  to 
be  blown  down  by  the  wind  ;  but  this  and  the  imphee  require  a  little 
more  care  than  corn. 

"  Of  the  two  varieties  of  cane,  I  think  the  imphee  will  prove  the 
most  valuable  plant ;  if  planted  earlier  and  upon  a  good  soil,  with  a 
southern  exposure,  I  think  it  will  ripen  before  frosts.  The  past  season 
has  been  a  bad  one  for  a  fair  experiment ;  even  our  corn  is  not  yet 
dry  enough  to  grind  for  bread,  it  has  been  so  backward  and  late. 

"  Yours,  &c. 

" ISAAC  A.  HEDGES,  Esq."  "BRUTUS  J.  CLAY." 

Despite  the  unfortunate  result  of  the  attempts  to  make  sugar  on 
Governor  Hammond's  pla'ce,  and  the  mixture  of  durra  corn  with  all 
of  the  immense  crop  of  imphee  seed,  which  otherwise  would  have 
immediately  supplied  the  country,  which,  from  the  few  hundred 
bushels  saved  pure  by  Mr.  Wray,  can  only  be  accomplished  in  one  or 
two  years,  I  think  my  readers  will  see  in  the  facts  above  set  forth 
reason  to  believe  that  the  year  has  not  been  entirely  unproductive  in 
results,  nor  without  a  great  promise  for  the  future  cultivation  of  the 
imphee. 


APPENDIX. 


AWARD  OF  MEDAL  TO  ME.  LOVERING. 

THE  history  of  the  sorgho  in  this  country,  from  the  first  exhibition 
by  Mr.  Peters  of  his  syrup  at  the  Fair  of  the  United  States  Agricul- 
tural Society  in  1856,  to  the  gratifying  success  of  Mr.  Joseph  S. 
Lovering,  in  producing  sorgho  sugar  of  all  qualities,  and  their  exhibi- 
tion before  the  same  society  January  13th,  1858,  is  fraught  with 
interest  to  the  American  public.  This  society  has  conferred  appro- 
priate honors  upon  the  two  men  who  have  been  especially  instrumental 
in  popularizing  the  sorgho  in  the  United  States  ;  first,  by  bestowing 
its  diploma  upon  Mr.  Peters,  and  second,  by  awarding  its  large  silver 
medal  to  Mr.  Lovering.  As  the  matter  has  assumed  historical  inter- 
est, it  will  perhaps  be  as  well  to  transcribe  from  the  minutes  so  much 
of  the  proceedings  as  relates  to  the  subject : 

"  The  Chair  next  read  a  letter  from  Mr.  Joseph  S.  Lovering,  a  sugar 
refiner  of  Philadelphia,  advising  the  society  of  the  shipment  to  them 
by  him  of  several  boxes  of  sugar  made  from  the  sorgho,  or  Chinese 
sugar  cane ;  as  also  some  pamphlets  embodying  the  manner  and 
results  of  the  experiments. 

"  Mr.  Olcott,  of  New  York,  stated  that  he  had  seen  and  carefully 
examined  the  samples  referred  to,  and  had  studied  the  pamphlet  that 
morning,  and  congratulated  the  society  that  at  last  the  fact  was 
established  that  excellent  sugar  could  be  made  in  the  Northern  States 
in  large  quantity,  and  at  a  moderate  price.  Mr.  Lovering  had  cut 
the  Gordian  knot,  and  done  it  in  so  thorough  and  scientific  a  manner, 
that  there  was  no  longer  room  for  a  doubt.  He  claimed  that  Mr.  L. 
had  earned  the  thanks  of  the  farmers  of  America,  and  as  this  society 


REPORT  OF   U.  S.  AGRICULTURAL   SOCIETY.          237 

was  the  representative  of  its  agricultural  interests,  he  should  move  that 
the  large  silver  medal  of  the  society  be  conferred  upon  Joseph  S. 
Levering. 

"  Senator  Harlan,  of  Iowa,  moved  the  reference  of  the  matter  to  a 
Special  Committee,  and  this  being  seconded,  the  Chair  appointed  as 
such  committee  Messrs.  D.  Jay  Browne,  of  the  Patent  Office,  Simon 
Brown,  of  Massachusetts,  and  Olcott,  of  New  Tork. 

"  The  committee  retired  for  consultation,  and  after  a  season  report- 
ed as  follows . 

"  '  The  committee  appointed  to  consider  the  propriety  of  awarding 
the  large  silver  medal  of  the  society  to  Mr.  Joseph  S.  Levering,  of 
Philadelphia,  respectfully  report  that,  having  examined  the  specimens 
of  sugar  presented  by  him,  and  the  scientific  examinations  set  forth  in 
his  published  pamphlet,  they  recommend  that  the  medal  be  awarded 
to  Mr.  Lovering,  for  the  care  with  which  his  experiments  have  been 
made,  and  the  sample  presented  ;  but  your  committee  do  not  wish  to 
be  understood  as  certifying  that  the  manufacture  of  sugar  is  as  yet 
demonstrated  to  be  more  profitable  than  other  crops. 

'  SIMON  BROWN,  Chairman" 

"  This  report  was  adopted." 

It  must  by  no  means  be  inferred  that  Mr.  Lovering  is  the  first  per- 
son who  has  made  sugar  of  good  quality  from  the  sorgho.  Two  or 
three  years  ago  this  was  accomplished  by  Professor  Avequin,  of  New 
Orleans,  as  will  be  seen  from  an  article  from  the  See  in  another  part 
of  this  Appendix.  In  addition  to  these,  Professors  C.  T.  Jackson  and 
A.  A.  Hayes,  of  Boston,  have  both  made  it  in  small  quantity,  and  re- 
ports have  been  published  during  the  past  season  of  sugar  making  by 
a  great  number  of  persons ;  but  Mr.  Lovering  is  entitled  to  especial 
honor  because  his  experiments  were  conducted  in  a  manner  so  intelli- 
gent, careful,  and  satisfactory ;  his  results  have  been  so  cheering  and 
of  such  an  available  character,  and  so  clearly  demonstrate  the  practi- 
cability of  making  sugar  throughout  the  most  northern  portions  of  the 
Temperate  Zone.  Mr.  Lovering's  pamphlet  will  be  found  in  this  Ap- 


238  APPENDIX. 

pendix,  as  well  as  further  practical  directions  to  farmers  based  upon 


Judge  J.  D.  Oaton,  of  Ottawa,  Illinois,  has  published  an  interesting 
account  of  his  experiments  and  successful  sugar  making.  The  sugar 
he  made  is  stated  to  be  of  good  quality,  but  the  quantity  per  acre 
could  not  be  practically  demonstrated,  because  the  amount  produced 
was  on  too  small  a  scale  to  afford  a  useful  basis  for  computation.  This 
has  been  the  case  in  most  of  the  instances  reported,  and  the  mere  pro- 
duction of  these  small  quantities  of  sugar  is  useful  only  as  corroborat- 
ing the  fact  of  its  existence  in  the  juice.  Now  that  it  has  been  proved 
beyond  the  shade  of  a  doubt  that  sugar  can  be  made  from  sorgho  and 
Imphee,  and  that  in  large  quantities  ;  of  course  this  branch  of  industry 
will  be  undertaken  with  greater  or  less  profit,  according  to  existing 
conditions.  Sugar  may  be  a  profitable  crop  in  districts  far  removed 
from  the  seaboard  or  from  the  great  lines  of  transport ;  but  there 
should  be  a  careful  scrutiny  of  many  possible  contingencies  before 
capital  is  extensively  employed  in  this  way. 

If,  however,  it  is  a  mooted  question  whether  we  should  grow  the  new 
canes  for  a  sugar  crop,  it  is  much  less  questionable  if,  in  almost  any 
locality,  they  would  not  be  very  remunerative  as  a  source  of  alcohol. 
In  this  case,  all  that  is  necessary  is  to  have  command  of  any  desired 
amount  of  fuel,  either  wood  or  coal,  and  then  the  nearer  the  seaboard, 
or  to  large  cities  of  the  interior,  the  farm  may  lie,  the  more  certain  will 
the  cultivator  be  to  have  a  profit  from  his  crop.  The  cold  rainy 
seasons  which  injure  the  secretion  of  cane  sugar  in  the  stalk,  operate 
rather  favorably  than  otherwise  for  the  production  of  alcohol.  The 
sugar  in  the  stalks  will  be  in  large  proportion  glucose,  and  thus  one 
step  in  its  transformation  towards  alcohol  is  saved,  for  cane  sugar  must 
change  into  glucose  before  it  can  pass  into  the  alcoholic  fermentation. 

To  afford  some  idea  of  the  range  of  latitude  in  which  the  sorgho 
will  grow,  the  effects  of  manures  and  soils  upon  the  height  of  stalk,  the 
varying  time  required  in  different  localities  to  complete  its  growth,  and 
the  height  and  diameter  of  stalk,  I  give  the  following  tabular  state- 
ment from  the  American  Agriculturist,  of  returns  made  to  that  paper 
during  the  present  season. 


TABULATED   EXPERIMENTS. 


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APPENDIX. 


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HISTORY   OF  BEET   SUGAR.  241 

A  careful  study  of  these  reports  will,  we  think,  lead  to  the  following 
conclusions  : 

1 .  The  Chinese  Sugar  Cane  will  flourish  well  wherever  Indian  corn 
will  grow  ;  it  endures  cold  better  than  corn,  but  will  not  ripen  its  seed 
in  a  cold  season,  like  the  past,  further  north  than  about  the  latitude 
of  40°  to  41°. 

2.  Under  favorable  circumstances,  and  in  good  seasons,  it  may  ripen 
its  seed  as  far  north  as  43°  to  44° .     See  Report  No.  43. 

3.  It  promises  to  be  superior  to  Indian  corn  for  soiling  (feeding 
green)  in  any  locality  where  corn  is  now  cultivated,  and  entirely  aside 
from  its  value  as  a  saccharine  plant,  it  will  be  an  acquisition  to  our 
forage  crops. 

4.  It  will  produce  good  syrup  from  the  immature  canes,  and  this 
may  be  done  in  ordinary  seasons  as  far  north  as  45°,  and  even  in 
colder  latitudes. 

5.  The  best  syrup  is  made  from  the  ripe  or  nearly  ripened  canes. 

6.  Unlike  the  Southern  Sugar  Cane,  its  saccharine  properties  are 
not  materially  injured  at  once  by  a  moderate  frost. 

7.  The  trials,  so  far,  do  not  show  that  sugar  can  be  readily  made, 
but  limited  experiments  seem  to  indicate  that  this  will  yet  be  the 
case. 

8.  If  it  should  finally  be  found  impossible  to  make  crystalized  sugar, 
still  an  excellent  syrup  can  be  profitably  extracted  from  its  juices. 

9.  The  most  profitable  results  will  be  obtained  where  the  culture 
and  manufacture  is  carried  on  upon  an  extensive  scale. 

10.  The  manufacture  of  syrup  is  as  easy  and  simple  as  ordinary 
maple  sugar  making. 

11.  Unless  "  sweetening  "  of  all  kinds  shall  be  produced  much  more 
abundantly  at  the  South,  and  sold  at  the  North  much  cheaper  than 
the  average  prices  of  the  past  year  or  two,  the  culture  of  the  Chinese 
Sugar  Cane  will  prove  highly  remunerative  in  the  Middle  and  North- 
ern States. 


When  it  was  first  attempted  to  grow  the  common  sugar  cane  in 
Louisiana,  the  same  objections  were  urged  as  have  been  used  in  regard 
11 


242  APPENDIX. 

to  these  new  sugar  canes.  As  poor  success  met  the  first  attempts  at 
sugar  making,  and,  as  was  recently  said  by  the  Ntw  York  Tribune,  in 
an  able  editorial  upon  the  Sorgho  and  Imphee  : 

It 'was  then  said  that  the  cane  juice  would  not  granulate;  that  if 
planters  could  make  molasses  they  could  not  make  sugar.  The  fault 
was  charged  to  the  soil,  to  the  climate,  to  anything  and  everything  but 
the  real  cause — the  inefficient  process  of  manufacture. 

In  a  great  measure,  we  presume,  the  reason  why  sugar  has  not 
been  made  of  the  juice  of  the  Chinese  cane  will  be  discovered  to  be 
because  people  did  not  possess  proper  machinery,  and  did  not  under- 
stand the  art ;  for  so  much  of  an  art  is  it,  that  many  who  are  en- 
faged  in  the  business  in  Louisiana  do  not  understand  it,  and  have  to 
ire  experienced  sugar  makers  to  conduct  the  operations  of  the  boiling 


It  often  happens  upon  the  sugar  estates  that  one  man  can  make 


Another  striking  case  in  point  is  found  in  the  history  of  the  manu- 
facture of  beet  sugar  in  France.  The  presence  of  a  crystalizable 
sugar  in  this  vegetable  was  discovered  by  a  Prussian  chemist  named 
Margraff,  who  addressed  a  communication  to  the  Academy  of  Berlin, 
in  the  year  1747,  announcing  his  discovery,  but  it  was  received  so 
coldly  and  was  deemed  of  so  little  practical  value,  that  it  was  not 
until  1797,  after  a  lapse  of  fifty  years,  that  Achard,  another  Prussian 
chemist,  invented  a  method  of  making  beet  sugar  on  a  large  scale  and 
at  a  moderate  expense.  His  discovery  was  by  turns  applauded  and 
derided  in  France.  It  was,  however,  borne  in  mind  and  experimented 
upon  by  a  few  enterprising  persons  in  different  localities,  until,  in  1812, 
Napoleon  issued  his  celebrated  decree  providing  for  the  establishment 
of  chemical  schools  and  large  manufactories,  for  the  production  of  beet 
sugar.* 

If,  therefore,  it  required  sixty-Jive  years  to  fairly  establish  the 
important  beet  culture  and  make  it  popular  with  the  masses,  surely 
we  have  little  cause  to  complain,  that  it  is  not  until  the  end  of  the 
third  year  of  the  cultivation  of  the  sorgho  in  the  United  States  that 

*  See  "  Child's  Culture  of  the  Beet." 


PROFESSOR  HAYES'  GLUCOSE  THEORY.         243 

its  great  capacities  for  the  production  of  sugar  have  been  de- 
monstrated. 

The  public  are  well  aware  that  Doctor  Augustus  A.  Hayes,  of 
Boston,  published  his  opinion  that  no  cane  sugar  existed  in  the  juice 
of  the  sorgho,  but  that,  if  any  dry  sugar  had  been  produced,  it  was 
nothing  more  than  glucose  combined  with  mineral  salts,  and  this  opinion 
was  widely  quoted  by  opponents  to  the  sorgho  culture.  Dr.  Hayes 
having  satisfied  himself,  as  he  alleges,  of  the  nature  of  the  sugar,  laid 
aside  his  samples  of  syrup  and  slips  of  pith,  and  paid  no  attention  to 
them  for  several  months.  At  a  subsequent  time,  however,  on  again 
examining  them,  he  discovered,  to  his  surprise,  that  there  had  been 
made  in  his  vials  of  syrup  and  on  the  surface  of  his  slips  of  dried  pith, 
a  deposit  of  beautiful  crystals  of  cane  sugar,  and  having  satisfied  him- 
self thoroughly,  by  chemical,  microscopic  and  polariscopic  experiment 
that  it  was  indeed  veritable  cane  sugar,  he  addressed  to  me  a  letter, 
in  which  he  claims  to  have  discovered  a  transformation  of  glucose  into 
cane  sugar,  a  process  hitherto  unknown  to  chemists.  The  same  facts 
he  presented  to  the  Boston  Society  of  Natural  History  at  its  session 
in  December  last,  and  as  the  paper  then  read  does  not  materially 
differ  from  the  communication  to  myself,  I  give  the  official  report,  as 
furnished  by  the  Recording  Secretary : 

In  a  paper  communicated  to  this  Society  some  time  since,  I  alluded 
to  the  fact,  that  the  glucose  of  Sorghum  cultivated  in  New  England, 
like  fluid  fruit  sugar,  passes  to  the  condition  of  dry,  or  crystalline 
fruit  sugar. 

The  subsequent  more  careful  investigation  of  this  change  led  to  the 
observation  that  the  action  was  continuous,  proceeding  indeed  during 
many  months,  and  resulting  finally  in  the  p  -eduction,  from  pure  glucose, 
of  sugar,  having  the  Jiiglier  grade  of  a  variety  of  beet  root  or  cane 
sugar. 

In  the  account  which  follows,  the  experiments  were  made  on  the 
glucose  of  that  variety  of  sorghum  which  has  dark  purple  seed  cover- 
ings, the  variety  generally  cultivated  in  our  Northern  States. 

When  we  extract  the  saccharine  matter  of  the  stalk  of  the  sorghum, 
either  by  expression  or  through  the  aid  of  water,  and  purify  the  solu- 
tion by  means  of  animal  charcoal,  we  obtain  glucose,  holding  in  solu- 
tion some  salts  of  potash,  lime,  and  soda.  This  glucose  does  not  afford 
crystals  by  evaporation  in  dessicated  air,  nor  does  alcohol,  saturated 
with  cane  sugar,  leave  undissolved  any  sugar. 


244  APPENDIX. 

The  perfectly  formed  cells  of  the  plant,  triturated  with  animal  char- 
coal, afford  to  boiling  alcohol  the  same  substance.  The  dry  glucose  is 
abundantly  soluble  in  alcohol  of  86  per  cent.,  and  the  dense  syrup  of 
the  same  dissolves  without  limit  in  it.  After  exposure  in  warm  air, 
crystalline  concretions,  resembling  dry  grape  sugar,  form  in  isolated 
masses.  Analysis  shows  a  large  proportion  of  saline  matter,  composed 
of  phosphoric  acid,  chlorine,  sulphuric  acid,  acetic  acid  and  potash, 
soda,  lime  and  oxide  of  iron. 

This  saline  matter  forms  a  compound  with  the  glucose,  and  thus 
makes  up  the  crystalline  grains  which  first  appear  in  the  dense  syrup. 

Those  are  constant  results  in  treating  the  plant  which  has  been 
cultivated  the  two  past  seasons,  and  they  present  no  remarkable  feature 
in  comparison  with  those  obtained  on  glucose  from  other  sources. 

After  the  lapse  of  several  weeks,  however,  the  pure  glucose  which 
has  been  withdrawn  from  the  foreign  aggregates  exhibits  the  production 
of  crystalline  points,  which  becoming  numerous,  soon  assume  the  forms 
of  regular  crystals. 

These  crystals  increase  in  volume,  but  while  forming  in  the  glucose 
they  present  skeletons  rather  than  solid  crystals  of  pure  substance,  and 
are  often  grouped.  Crude  syrup,  remaining  after  the  concentration  of 
the  juice  by  rapid  boiling,  undergoes  the  same  modifications  and 
crystallized  sugar  slowly  separates  from  samples  which  originally  did 
not  contain  any. 

Slips  of  the  pith  of  the  plant,  which  have  been  carefully  examined 
under  the  microscope  without  any  trace  of  crystals  being  found,  after 
some  months  show  their  cells  filled  with  voluminous  dry  crystals. 

Repeated  trials  prove  that  the  chemical  change  resulting  in  the  pro- 
duction of  the  crystals  from  glucose,  is  not  dependant  on  the  exposure 
to  air  and  loss  of  water,  but  it  takes  place  when  the  syrup  is  kept  in 
closed  bottles. 

As  the  glucose  is  abundantly  soluble  in  alcohol  at  90  per  cent.,  this 
agent  enables  us  to  learn  at  any  moment  the  production  of  sugar  in  a 
sample  ;  the  sugar  when  formed  being  nearly  insoluble  in  cold  alcohol. 
Thus,  when  a  certain  number  of  crystals  have  formed,  if  we  withdraw, 
by  solution  in  alcohol,  the  unchanged  glucose,  and  after  dissipating  the 
alcohol,  allow  it  to  repose,  crystallization  recommences  in  the  portion 
removed,  and  repetitions  of  this  experiment  may  be  made  until,  after 
about  ten  months,  small  portions  only  of  the  unaltered  glucose  remain. 

Although  the  evidence  of  the  conversion  of  the  glucose,  step  by  step, 
into  sugar,  afforded  by  the  action  of  alcohol,  is  important,  the  observa- 
tions here  recorded  are  based  upon  experiments  made  in  a  similar 
manner  with  the  alkaline  solution  of  tartrate  of  copper,  and  acidulated 
alcohol  saturated  with  cane  sugar  ;  they  leave  no  doubt  that  the  normal 
saccharine  juice  of  the  plant  becomes,  per  se,  converted  into  sugar, 
forming  regular  crystals  of  large  size: 


FEEDING   STOCK   WITH   SORGHO.  245 

These  crystals,  by  solution  in  water,  are  easily  purified,  losing  their 
porous  structure  and  becoming  solid,  transparent  and  colorless  modifi- 
cations of  the  rhombic  prism  from  an  aqueous  solution.  They  are 
always  apparently  more  voluminous  than  the  crystals  of  cane  sugar 
formed  under  like  circumstances,  but  they  have  all  the  brilliancy  of 
cane  sugar. 

In  chemical  characters,  the  most  pure  crystals  yet  obtained  show  » 
diversity  when  compared  with  cane  or  palm  sugar. 

They  are  less  soluble  in  water  ;  in  sulphuric  acid  they  do  not  exhibit 
the  same  depth  of  coloration  that  cane  sugar  does.  With  the  copper 
test,  a  partial  reduction  takes  place,  under  the  same  conditions  where 
cane  sugar  does  not  produce  change  on  this  agent. 

The  conclusion  reached  is,  that  this  sugar,  wholly  unlike  any 
variety  of  glucose,  or  fruit  sugar,  belongs  to  a  higher  class,  and  pro- 
bably will  rank  with  beet  sugar  in  most  "of  its  characters. 

The  present  is  the  first  instance,  within  my  knowledge,  of  the  con- 
version of  any  variety  of  glucose  into  a  sugar  of  high  grade,  after  its 
extraction  artificially. 

In  reply  to  this  paper,  Dr.  Jackson  expressed  his  belief  that  the 
syrup  experimented  upon  by  Dr.  Hayes  was  from  unripe  canes.  He 
claimed  that  the  sugar  of  the  ripe  sorghum  has  the  crystalline  form 
and  all  the  physical  and  chemical  properties  of  cane  sugar,  and  can- 
not be  classed  with  any  other.  It  exists,  ready  formed,  in  the  cells 
of  the  plant,  and  may  be  seen  by  aid  of  the  microscope  in  them  when 
the  plant  is  dried  rapidly.  It  is  obtained  immediately  on  expression 
of  a  few  drops  of  the  juice  upon  a  plate  of  glass,  on  which  perfect 
crystals  of  cane  sugar  are  seen  by  the  microscope. 

Whatever  be  the  results  of  this  scientific  controversy,  both  gentle- 
men agree  that  cane  sugar  is  present  in  the  plant,  and  their  experience 
is  fully  substantiated  by  the  practical  operations  of  Mr.  Lovering  and 
others. 

With  these  remarks  in  preface,  I  present  to  my  readers  the  valuable 
statement  of  Mr.  Lovering  : 

FEEDING  STOCK  WITH  SORGHO. 

UPON  Gov.  Hammond's  plantation  I  saw  five  hundred  hogs  and  a 
large  number  of  cattle  fed  upon  stalks  of  the  imphees,  which  had 
been  withheld  from  sale  because  it  had  been  planted  in  the  vicinity  of 


246  APPENDIX. 

durra.  The  sanimals  eat  the  stalks  with  great  avidity,  the  hog 
especially.  When  once  they  commence  crunching  them,  they  scarcely 
raise  their  heads  until  their  appetite  is  entirely  satisfied. 

F.  H.  Gordon,  M.  D.,  of  Rome,  Tenn.,  writes  as  follows  : 

"  I  made  a  few  hundred  gallons  of  syrup,  one  hundred  and  fifty  gal- 
lons good  vinegar,  two  barrels  of  very  good  cider,  and  have  five  barrels 
of  wine  which  promises  to  be  a  fine  article  when  it  shall  have  age. 
The  cane  will  fatten  hogs,  mules,  horses,  and  cattle,  as  rapidly  as  any 
other  food  ;  in  this  lies  its  greatest  value.  I  have  slaughtered  a  por- 
tion of  my  hogs  fattened  on  the  cane,  and  find  the  meat  and  lard  in  all 
respects  just  like  that  of  corn  fed  hogs,  except  that  most  persons  who 
have  eaten  of  it  pronounce  the  meat  sweeter  than  corn  fattened  meat." 

FEEDING  HOGS. 

G.  D.  Harmon,  of  Utica,  Miss.,  writes  to  the  Southern  Cultivator, 
that  he  took  two  shoats,  weighed  them,  September  1st,  No.  1  weighed 
seventy-six  pounds.    He  was  fed  on  as  much  corn  as  he  would  eat, 
and  had  the  slops  from  the  kitchen.    No.  2  weighed  seventy-three 
pounds,  and  was  fed  exclusively  on  sorgho,  canes  and  seed.    The  ex- 
periment was  continued  for  three  weeks,  and  the  result  was  :  No.  1 
weighed  one  hundred  and  fifteen  pounds,  and  No.  2  one  hundred  and 
ten  pounds ;  so  that  the  simple  cane  and  seed  were  nearly  equal  in 
nutritive  value  to  the  swill  from  the  house  and  an  unlimited  supply  of 
corn. 

ITS  EFFECTS  ON  MILK. 

The  following  result  of  feeding  a  milch  cow  partially  upon  Chinese 
sugar  cane  (from  the  Providence  Journal),  will  be  read  with  interest. 
Lady  Tempest,  half  Durham  cow,  was  in  pasture  on  the  22d  September, 
and  yielded  forty-one  pounds  of  milk.  On  the  evening  of  that  day,  gave 
her  ten  short  stalks  of  suckers  of  Sorgho,  which,  if  cut  up,  would  fill 
half  a  bushel.  After  this,  until  the  28th,  gave  her  same  amount  of 
sorgho,  night  and  morning,  and  kept  her  in  same  pasture.  Yield  of 
milk  :  on  23d,  forty-two  and  a  half  pounds  ;  24th,  forty-seven  pounds  ; 
25th,  forty-seven  and  three-fourth  pounds  ;  26th,  forty-nine  pounds  ; 
27th,  fifty-one  and  a  half  pounds ;  28th,  fifty  and  a  half  pounds.  The 
pasture  was  affected  by  no  circumstance  that  would  tend  to  increase 


FEEDING   STOCK   WITH   SORGHO.  247 

the  feed  from  it  during  this  time.     The  weather  uniformly  pleasant, 
except  the  23d,  which  was  rainy,  and  without  frost  affecting  the  feed. 

At  an  agricultural  meeting  at  Indianapolis,  Mr.  Kaab,  of  Ohio 
County,  spoke  of  having  used  the  blades  and  tops  with  success  for 
feeding  to  milch  cows.  Their  yield  of  milk  had  been  increased  one- 
fifth,  and  the  butter  was  more  yellow. 

Mr.  W.  Dickson,  of  Oxford,  Ga.,  has  made  experiments  in  stock 
feeding.  He  says  that  on  one  acre,  besides  three  hundred  gallons  of 
syrup,  he  can  gather  fifty  bushels  of  seed,  which  is  good  for  hogs,  or 
can  be  ground  into  a  dark  but  good  flour.  His  family  have  used  con- 
siderable quantities  for  making  batter  cakes,  and  prefer  the  flour  for 
that  purpose  to  buckwheat  or  wheat  flour,  it  being  softer  and  richer, 
and  containing,  he  thinks,  more  oil  and  gluten  than  the  others.  Mr. 
Dickson  says  that  the  cane  grown  upon  an  acre  of  land  is  worth  more 
to  feed  hogs  than  the  produce  of  the  same  land  in  corn,  besides  the 
crop  of  seed. 

A  foolish  opinion  was  at  one  time,  during  the  past  season,  promul- 
gated, that  the  seed  of  the  sorgho  was  poisonous,  and  would  destroy 
animals  if  continuously  fed  to  them.  An  application  having  been 
made  to  Mr.  Browne,  of  the  Patent  Office,  for  his  opinion  on  the  sub- 
ject, he  stated  as  follows  : 

"  In  answer  to  the  inquiry  as  to  the  poisonous  character  of  the 
Chinese  sugar  cane,  when  eaten  by  animals,  I  would  inform  you,  not 
only  from  the  authority  of  numerous  persons  who  are  in  communica- 
tion with  this  office,  but  from  my  own  personal  knowledge,  that  any 
conjecture  or  statement  to  that  effect  is  wholly  unfounded. 

"  I  have  seen  cattle,  horses,  poultry,  and  swine  fed  upon  it  freely,  both 
in  an  unripe  and  mature  state,  without  the  slightest  symptoms  of 
injury  or  disease ;  and  I  have  witnessed  for  the  last  month  several 
tame  pigeons  of  this  city  constantly  in  the  habit  of  feeding  upon  the 
seeds  of  some  plants  growing  in  the  yard  adjoining  my  residence,  ap- 
parently with  impunity — a  fact  that  would  also  seem  to  be  confirmed 
by  M.  Vilmorin,  of  Paris,  who  says  that  the  bones  of  poultry  which 
had  continuously  eaten  the  sorgho  seed  were  colored  red  from  the  dye 
stuff  in  their  pellicles. 

"  I  would  further  remark,  that  Mr.  A.  Marschalk,  editor  of  the  Belton 
(Texas)  Independent,  has  recently  made  some  "  excellent  bread  "  from 
flour  ground  from  the  seed  of  the  Chinese  sugar  cane,  which  had  a 


248  APPENDIX. 

deep  pink  color  imparted  to  it  from  the  small  particles  of  the  pellicles 
or  hulls  which  the  bolting  cloth  did  not  separate. 

"  Here  there  is  positive  evidence  that  the  entire  seed,  including  the 
pellicle,  has  not  only  been  devoured  by  poultry  and  other  animals,  but 
has  been  employed  as  human  food,  so  far  as  is  known,  without  any 
disagreeable  effect." 

Mr.  H.  A.  Terry,  of  Crescent  City,  Iowa,  says  in  Moore's  Rural 
New  Yorker : 

"  As  a  forage  crop,  the  Chinese  cane  has  no  equal ;  our  cattle  eat  it 
in  preference  to  corn  or  any  thing  else  that  we  grow,  and  I  have  good 
reason  to  believe  that  it  contains  a  greater  amount  of  nutriment  than 
corn  fodder,  or  the  best  quality  of  hay.  I  find  that  cattle  eat  the 
heads  of  seed  with  avidity,  and  I  am  of  opinion  that  it  would  pay 
well  to  raise  it  for  the  seed,  even  were  the  stalks  worthless.  I  had 
many  canes  which  measured  sixteen  feet  in  height,  and  they  were 
planted  much  closer  together  than  corn  will  bear  to  be  planted  at 
that." 

Geo.  W.  Kendall,  who  owns  a  ranch  in  Texas,  and  who  has  been 
very  successful  in  raising  the  Chinese  sugar  cane,  writes  to  the  New 
Orleans  Picayune  as  follows  : 

"  Many  of  my  friends  in  this  section  are  sanguine  that  this  new 
grain  or  plant  will  drive  all  others  out  of  the  ground,  or  that  it  will 
at  least  effect  a  perfect  revolution  in  the  way  of  farming  in  Western 
Texas.  They  are  saving  the  seed  to  plant  for  bread,  and  they  are 
making  syrup  and  sugar  of  the  juice  of  the  stalk  ;  they  are  feeding  it 
out  as  green  fodder,  and  saving  it  for  dry.  No  part  of  it  is  wasted  ; 
cattle,  horses,  sheep  and  hogs  eat  it  clean,  from  the  ground  upwards, 
when  the  stalk  is  ripe,  and  gain  strength  and  grow  fat  upon  it.  An 
immense  quantity  will  be  planted  next  year.  " 

SOEGHO   PAPEE. 

Experiments  for  the  manufacture  of  paper  from  the  bagasse  of  the 
sorgho  have  been  made  by  the  Hon.  Jas.  F.  C.  Hyde,  of  Mass.,  which 
have  resulted  to  his  satisfaction.  In  answer  to  an  inquiry  by  myself. 
he  sends  the  following  : 

«  NEWTON  CENTRE,  MASS.,  Dec.  22d,  1857. 
"  DEAB  SIR— 

"  Yours  of  the  18th  has  just  come  to  hand.  In  regard  to  the  man- 
ufacture of  paper  from  the  bagasse  of  the  sorgho,  I  would  say,  that 


SORGHO    PAPER.  '    249 

I  expended  sixty  dollars  cash  to  have  the  experiment  tried,  and  I  am 
satisfied  that  it  will  pay.  My  paper  maker  says  the  waste  or  bagasse 
will  be  worth  $15  to  $16  per  ton  for  that  purpose.  I  had  about 
700  Ibs.  of  paper  made,  which  is  worth  about  $35.  You  may  ask 
how  it  is  that  I  got  but  $35  worth  of  paper  when  I  paid  $60  for  the 
work,  &c.  The  fact  is,  that  it  was  a  new  material,  and  they  knew 
not  how  to  proceed  with  it.  There  were  many  unforeseen  difficulties 
to  contend  with,  such  as  an  improper  engine  to  beat  it  with  ;  running 
it  off  into  the  stuff  box  so  thin  that  it  would  not  run  into  paper,  be- 
cause there  was  so  much  water  with  the  pulp,  etc.  Besides  this,  the 
paper  machine— which  you  know  is  a  very  nicely  adjusted  machine, 
and  requires  that  everything  should  run  smoothly  or  it  will  not  run 
at  all — did  not  work  well,  it  being  adjusted  for  another  sort  of  paper. 
The  difficulties  were  almost  without  number.  We  tried  boiling  in 
lime  and  soda  ash — as  they  boil  other  paper  stock  before  beating  it — 
but  it  had  the  effect — the  lime — to  harden  rather  than  soften  ;  we  tried 
soda  ash  and  potash,  and  this  worked  better  ;  we  tried  some  without 
bleaching  powders,  and  some  with,  and  that  without  yielded  the 
whitest  paper.  The  bleaching  powders  had  a  different  effect  upon 
this  stock  from  any  other.  My  experience  thus  far  has  taught  me 
that  the  pith  of  the  bagasse  is  all  waste,  and  only  in  the  way,  as  it  has 
to  be  all  washed  out ;  that  the  stock  should  be  boiled  in  some  sub- 
stance— perhaps  soda  ash  and  potash  are  the  best — that  will  soften  it ; 
that  it  should  be  beaten  into  pulp  with  a  dull  engine,  and  mashed  or 
drawn  out  rather  than  cut,  to  get  rid  of  that  strawy  appearance  in  the 
paper.  Some  other  stock  should  be  used  with  it — such  as  manilla 
hemp  or  gunny  cloth,  or  other  hard  stock.  It  is  of  no  use  to  employ 
bleaching  powders,  such  as  are  used  to  whiten  other  paper  stock,  in 
the  manufacture  of  paper  from  the  sorgho,  as  it  is  only  loss,  the  stock 
being  whiter  without  than  with  the  powders.  I  think  it  would  be 
more  profitable  to  make  the  bagasse  into  paper  board  than  paper. 
The  bagasse  is  worth  more — in  our  neighborhood  at  least— /or  paper 
than  for  any  other  purpose.  I  have  stacked  mine,  and  next  summer 
shall  have  it  all  made  up,  I  think,  into  paper  board.  The  first  five 
days  I  hired  the  paper  mill  scarcely  a  pound  of  paper  was  made,  so 
11* 


250  APPENDIX. 

numerous  were  the  troubles,  but  the  sixth  day  we  run  off  700  Ibs.  The 
paper  requires  but  little  sizing,  as  there  is  a  good  deal  in  the  waste. 
"  Tours  respectfully, 

"JAMES  F.  C.  HYDE." 

Mr.  Hyde  was  good  enough  to  send  me  at  the  same  time  several 
specimens  of  his  paper.  They  are  all  coarse  wrapping  papers,  strong 
in  one  direction,  but  too  brittle  for  hard  usage.  They  are  satisfactory 
so  far  as  they  go,  but  by  no  means  as  good  in  quality  as  specimens  in 
my  possession,  made  by  Dr.  Sicard,  of  Marseilles,  and  M.  Duret  of 
Paris. 

Mr.  P.  O'Reilley,  of  Providence,  E.  I.,  has  also  made  experiments 
in  this  department  of  sorgho  culture,  and  with  fair  success.  He  has 
sent  me  a  sample  of  fibre  bleached  and  ready  for  the  mill,  together 
with  two  specimens  of  the  white  paper  made  by  him  in  a  rude  way. 
The  fibre  is  strong  and  capable  of  being  employed  either  for  making 
paper  or  coarse  textile  fabrics.  The  method  employed  to  produce  it 
is  thus  described  in  the  Scientific  American  : 

"  It  was  produced  by  first  steeping  the  cane,  like  flax,  in  water  for 
about  six  days  to  rot  it ;  then  it  was  boiled  in  a  keir  among  a  caustic 
lye  of  five  degrees'  strength  (Beaume)  for  half  an  hour,  but  allowed  to 
steep  in  the  same  liquor  maintained  at  80°  Fahr.  for  twelve  hours 
longer.  After  this,  it  was  taken  out  and  washed,  then  steeped  in  warm 
liquor  of  chloride  of  lime  for  ten  hours  ;  then  washed  again,  and  finally 
treated  with  a  liquor  of  Eothes'  anti-chlorine,  after  which  it  was  dried 
in  the  sun.  From  one  hundred  pounds  of  the  cane  thus  treated,  sixty-two 
pounds  of  fibre  were  secured.  As  this  process  for  obtaining  fibre  from 
the  sorgho  cane  appears  to  be  as  cheap  as  that  which  straw  undergoes 
to  form  it  into  pulp,  this  fibre  may  be  a  good  substitute  for  that  of 
straw,  and  we  think  a  stronger  wrapping  paper  may  be  made  from  it. 
It  is,  at  least,  worth  a  trial  for  this  purpose. 


BOTANICAL   RANK  OF    SORGHO   AND  IMPHEE.   251 

REPORT 

ON  THE 

BOTANICAL  BANK   OP  THE    SOKGHO   AND  IMPHEE- 

READ  BEFORE  THE  BOSTON  SOCIETY  OP  NATURAL  HISTORY, 
By  CHAKLES  J.  SPRAGTTE,  BotaMioal  Curator  of  the  Society. 


DR.  HAYES  has  placed  in  my  hands  a  suite  of  specimens  of  the 
Sorgho  Sucre,  Imphee,  Durra,  and  Broom  Corn,  for  examination,  at  the 
request  of  Mr.  H.  S.  Olcott,  of  Mount  Vernon,  Westchester  county, 
New  York,  who  presents  them  to  the  Society.  The  points  of  inter- 
est which  Mr.  Olcott  desires  to  have  examined  are  these :  whether 
these  plants  are  or  not  of  the  same  species,  whether  they  will  hy- 
bridize, and  whether  they  are  likely  to  lose  their  peculiarities  by 
careless  planting  and  management.  Some  varieties  possess  more  of 
the  saccharine  secretion  than  others.  Is  this  excess  a  specific  pecu- 
liarity or  the  result  of  varied  cultivation  of  the  same  species  in  diiferent 
localities  ?  Will  these  peculiarities  continue  fixed,  or  will  the  varieties 
lose  their  distinctness  when  grown  in  company  with  one  another? 
The  specimens  consist  of  portions  of  the  panicles  of  eighteen  varieties 
of  Zulu  Kaffir  Imphee,  grown  in  South  Carolina,  on  the  plantation  of 
Gov.  Hammond,  from  seeds  ripened  in  France,  and  received  from  Mr. 
Leonard  Wray.  These  specimens  were  gathered  in  a  field  where  they 
grew  promiscuously,  by  Mr.  Olcott  himself,  in  company  with  Mr 
Wray,  who  identified  the  varieties,  and  furnished  the  Kaffir  names. 

There  are  four  specimens  of  Durra,  the  seeds  of  which  were  received 
from  France  in  the  same  package  with  the  Impliee,  and  planted  in  the 
same  field.  Also  four  specimens  of  Durra,  Brown  corn,  and  their 
hybrids  with  sorgho  sucre,  grown  by  Mr.  Olcott,  in  Westchester.  I 
have  added  to  these  four  specimens  of  Imphee  grown  in  the  District 
of  Columbia,  and  presented  to  the  society  by  Dr.  Jackson,  that  the 
suite  of  specimens  may  be  yet  more  full.  My  remarks  upon  these 
specimens  will  be  confined  to  the  fruit  alone,  as  I  have  not  seen  the 


252  APPENDIX. 

growing  plants,  and  cannot  therefore  speak  of  the  differences  which 
may  exist  in  their  foliage  and  port. 

Steudel  enumerates,  in  his  synopsis  of  the  grasses,  the  following  al- 
lied species  of  the  Andropogon,  growing  in  Asia  and  Africa.  A. 
Sorghum,  Auct.  A.  Rubens,  Willd.  A.  Subglabrescus,  Steud.  A. 
Saccharatus,  L.,  (sub  Holcus).  A.  Verticilliflorus,  Steud.  A.  Niger 
Kunth.  A.  Cernuus,  Roxb.  A.  Bicolor,  Roxb.,  and  he  implies  that 
most  of  these  may  be  varieties  of  the  Andropogon  Sorghum.  Besides 
these  is  A.  Drummondii,  Nees,  from  New  Orleans.  These  so  called 
species  are,  in  all  probability,  founded  OH  permanent  varieties  of  the 
grass  which  has  been  grown  for  its  grain  and  foliage  for  centuries  in 
the  East  Indies  and  Africa.  It  was  placed  first  in  the  genus  Holcus, 
by  Linn.,  but  has  been  separated  from  it,  and  ranked  iu  that  of  An- 
dropogc.n.  It  is  still  kept  there  by  some  of  the  best  botanists  of  the 
day,  but  by  others  it  is  placed  in  that  of  Sorghum,  a  genus  separated 
from  Andropogon,  mainly  from  its  paniculate  inflorescence  and  cori- 
aceous glumes.  The  species  named  for  Drummond,  by  Nees,  is  prob- 
ably a  form  of  the  same  plant,  which  had  established  itself  at  New 
Orleans.  An  authentic  specimen  in  Dr.  Gray's  herbarium  does  not 
appreciably  differ  from  some  of  the  varieties  grown  in  South  Carolina. 

The  thirty-one  specimens  laid  before  you  are  thought  to  represent 
four  species  and  many  varieties.  The  seeds  came  from  France,  but  the 
plants  furnishing  them  originally  came  from  widely  separated  localities. 
The  differences  which  they  exhibit  are  in  the  color,  shape  and  hairi- 
ness of  the  glumes  ;  the  color,  shape  and  prpminence  of  the  corn  beyond 
the  glumes ;  and  the  open  or  compact  growth  of  the  panicle.  If  these 
differences  were  constantly  exhibited  together,  if  the  difference  in 
shape  were  always  attended  by  a  difference  of  color,  and  that  color 
always  accompanied  by  the  same  hairiness  and  exsertion  of  corn,  there 
would  be  strong  ground  to  establish  specific  differences.  But  such  is 
not  the  case.  The  specimens  placed  side  by  side  exhibit  a  complete 
gradation  between  the  extremes  of  the  series.  Those  which  vary  most 
in  shape  are  similar  in  color.  Those  which  differ  in  color  are  iden- 
tical in  shape.  The  hairiness  and  the  degree  of  exsertion  are  coex- 
istent with  the  extremes  of  shape  and  color. 


BOTANICAL   BANK   OF   SORGHO   AND   IMPHEE      253 

There  are  four  which  are  especially  interesting.  Mr.  Olcott  grew 
Broom  Corn  and  Durra  in  rows,  on  each  side  of  Sorgho  Sucre.  The 
result  was  a  plant  partaking  equally  of  the  characteristics  of  the 
parents  on  each  side.  The  eighteen  varieties  of  Imphees,  thought  to  be 
so  distinct  that  different  native  names  have  been  given  them,  exhibit 
every  intermediate  form  imaginable.  Some  glumes  are  nearly  white  ; 
some  are  specked  with  brown  and  black  ;  some  are  all  brown  ;  others 
are  all  black.  Some  have  ovate  pointed  glumes  of  every  hue  ;  others 
have  obtuse  glumes,  with  a  broad  scarious  point  or  rounded  glumes 
with  no  point,  through  the  same  series  of  color.  The  corns  are  either 
enclosed  or  exserted  through  the  whole  series,  irrespective  of  color  or 
form.  Some  of  the  varieties  of  Imphee  present  a  peculiar  appearance 
from  the  persistence  and  prominence  of  the  sterile  spikelets,  some  dif- 
fering in  no  other  respects  have  these  scarce  visible,  and  some  have 
them  not  at  all.  Color  and  hairiness  are  among  the  least  reliable  of 
botanical  characters,  and  should  have  but  little  weight  in  plants  so 
closely  allied,  and  the  other  differences  are  exhibited  almost  as  prom- 
inently in  different  panicles  of  the  same  acknowledged  variety. 

The  question  of  hybridity  of  species  of  plants,  has  lately  received 
close  and  careful  attention.  M.  Charles  Naudin  has  lately  made  a 
series  of  interesting  experiments  on  the  cultivated  pumpkins  and 
squashes.  He  has  arrived  at  the  conclusion  that  nearly  all  those  grown 
in  our  gardens  may  be  referred  to  one  single  species.  He  has  par- 
ticularly examined  the  changes  which  artificial  impregnation  will 
produce.  We  often  hear  that  cucurbitaceous  plants  should  not  be 
grown  together,  or  they  will  injure  each  other.  This  gives  rise  to  the 
quastion  whether  the  fruit  of  the  same  season  can  acquire  another's 
peculiarities  without  first  having  grown  from  the  seed,  the  result  of 
such  impregnation.  Such  has  proved  to  be  the  case.  The  influence 
of  the  pollen  on  the  fruit  of  the  same  year  is  such  as  to  communicate 
to  it  the  characteristics  of  the  plant  furnishing  the  pollen.  But  M. 
Naudin  finds  that  true  species  undoubtedly  distinct  can  scarce  be  made 
to  hybridize,  and  that  extensive  and  ready  hybridization  takes  place  only 
among  varieties  of  one  species.  Dr.  Gray  has  shown  me  recently  an 
ear  of  corn  exhibiting  a  hybridation  more  or  less  common.  It  was 


254  APPENDIX. 

sweet  corn,  in  which  kernels  of  hard,  smooth  yellow  corn  were  irregu- 
larly distributed  with  the  white  wrinkled  kernels  of  the  sweet.  Here 
the  mere  impregnation  of  the  germ  of  white  corn  by  the  pollen  of  the 
yellow  had  been  sufficient  to  convert  those  grains  which  it  touched 
into  perfect  yellow  corn.  The  sports  and  varieties  of  corn  have  a 
strong  bearing  upon  the  question  of  the  specific  identity  of  these 
varieties  of  Sorghum  ;  though  some  botanists  have  made  species  out  of 
the  varieties  of  Indian  corn,  it  is  generally  believed  that  these  are  all 
the  results  of  cultivation  on  one  species.  One  peculiarity  of  one  form 
claims  attention  here.  The  plant  has  been  found  growing,  apparently 
wild,  with  the  grain  entirely  covered  by  the  glumes  which  project  far 
beyond  it ;  but  it  is  said,  that  after  a  little  cultivation,  these  glumes 
disappear,  or  become  so  abbreviated,  as  to  allow  the  grain  to  be  en- 
tirely uncovered,  as  in  our  garden  growths.  This  same  difference  is 
to  be  seen  in  the  varieties  of  Sorghum  under  consideration.  The 
Durra  most  exhibits  this  abbreviation  of  glume  and  prominence  of 
grain,  and  this  variety  is  that  which  is  known  to  have  been  longest 
under  cultivation. 

The  question  then  arises,  whether  the  plants  would  so  freely  hybrid- 
ize and  exchange  peculiarities  were  they  of  different  species  ?  Does 
not  this  hybridity  point  to  identity  ?  We  do  not  see  other  grasses 
which  grow  broadcast  in  our  fields,  hybridizing  naturally  and  so  per- 
fectly as  to  become  diversified  in  an  inextricable  series  of  graduated 
forms.  The  Poos,  Panicums  and  Festucas  which  abound  in  our  fields 
and  meadows,  do  not  interchange  their  specific  peculiarities,  but  grow, 
side  by  side,  and  maintain  their  identity.  But  the  Sorgho  is  no  sooner 
placed  side  by  side  with  Broom  Corn  and  Durra,  than  the  three  hy- 
bridize and  produce  an  offspring  combining  the  peculiarities  of  ah1. 

The  Sorghum  Yulgare  has  been  cultivated  for  untold  centuries  as  a 
forage  plant  and  food  for  animals  and  man.  The  question  of  its  pro- 
duction of  syrup  and  sugar  is  by  no  means  a  recent  one.  Experiments 
were  made  upon  it  more  than  half  a  century  ago  in  Europe,  and  one 
of  its  names  arose  from  the  saccharine  secretion  of  its  culm.  Its  na- 
tive country  is  unknown,  but  it  is  supposed  to  have  originated  in  the 
some  places  where  it  has  been  so  long  cultivated.  Tts  grains  have 


BOTANICAL    RANK   OF   bOliGHO   AND   IMPHEE.      255 

been  found  in  Egyptian  sarcophagi,  and  these  are  said  to  have  pro- 
duced plants  identical  with  the  modern  Durra  or  Juari.  After  this 
long  cultivation  in  all  kinds  of  soil  and  climate,  and  under  such  varied 
treatment,  it  would  be  strange  indeed  if  it  did  not  exhibit  a  wide  de- 
parture from  its  normal  type.  If  the  Indian  Corn  has  become  so 
astonishingly  changed  in  a  shorter  period  of  time,  we  may  well  under- 
stand that  the  Sorghum  should  wander  into  all  the  varieties  upon  which 
botanists  have  sought  to  found  distinct  species. 

I  am  induced  to  believe,  therefore,  that  Broom  Corn,  Sorgho  sucre, 
Imphee  and  Durra  are  varieties  of  one  primitive  species,  the  Andropo- 
gon  Sorghum  of  authors,  or  allowing  the  genus  Sorghum  to  stand, 
SORGHUM  VULGAKE. 

The  establishment  of  this  fact  will  answer  many  of  the  questions 
which  have  been  asked  regarding  its  economic  value.  If  they  are  one 
species,  they  will,  of  course  hybridize  and  exchange  whatever  proper- 
ties they  possess.  The  saccharine  secretions  of  one  variety  will  be 
diminished  by  hybridation  with  another  not  possessed  of  an  equal 
amouut,  and  the  saccharine  qualities  peculiar  to  one  may  be  lost  by 
planting  in  a  soil  01?  climate  differing  from  that  which  has  brought 
them  forth  in  an  unusual  quantity.  If  their  cultivation  as  a  forage 
crop,  or  a  syrup  and  sugar  producing  plant,  shall  prove  profitable,  the 
use  of  the  grain,  in  the  form  of  flour,  as  well  as  food  for  cattle  and 
poultry,  may  considerably  diminish  the  cost  of  cultivation.  But  the 
question  is  yet  to  be  decided  whether  other  crops  may  not  prove  far 
more  profitable  upon  the  same  soil. 


J.   S.   LOVERIM'S    EXPERIMENTS. 

A  DETAILED  ACCOUNT  of  Experiments  and  Observations  upon  the  Sor- 
ghum Saccharatum,  or  Chinese  Sugar  Cane,  made  with  the  view  of 
determining  its  value  as  a  sugar-producing  plant,  from  September' 
28,  to  December  20,  1857,  at  Oakhill,  Philadelphia  County,  Pa.  By 
JOSEPH  S.  LOVERING. 

THE  introduction  of  this  plant  into  the  United  States,  and  the  hope 
of  producing  sugar  from  it  at  the  North,  profitably,  have  excited  such 
universal  interest,  that  it  has  this  year  been  planted  in  almost  every 
State  in  the  Union  ;  and  as  the  season  has  advanced,  the  opinions 
early  expressed  by  many  intelligent  and  scientific  experimentalists, 
that  it  contains  no  crystallizable  sugar,  have  apparently  been  confirmed 
by  later  trials.  A  few  crystals,  it  is  true,  have  been  obtained  in  one 
or  two  instances,  but  all  hope  of  producing  sugar  from  it  profitably 
seems  to  have  been  abandoned. 

My  object  in  making  the  following  experiments  has  been  to  throw 
what  light  I  could  upon  this  important  question,  and,  in  the  event  of 
the  result  proving  favorable,  to  give  such  a  formula  as  would  enable 
the  uninitiated  to  proceed  with  confidence  of  success.  They  have 
been  pursued  without  any  attempt  at  extraordinary  production, 
either  in  the  cultivation  of  the  cane  or  the  development  of  its  proper- 
ties ;  on  the  contrary,  the  experiments  were  made  upon  small  quanti- 
ties, under  many  disadvantages  that  would  not  occur  in  large  opera- 
tions, and  consequently  with  results  less  favorable. 

The  series  being  completed,  perhaps  the  best  method  of  communi- 
cating the  results  and  imparting  the  knowledge  obtained  to  the  public, 
will  be  by  giving  the  following  extracts  from  my  notes,  made  as  the 
work  proceeded.  They  will  show  the  progress  of  the  development  of 
the  sugar  in  the  stalk,  and  its  decline,  with  many  other  interesting 
facts. 

EXTRACTS. 

On  the  10th  of  May  I  planted  about  half  an  acre,  on  upland  of  good 
quality,  such  as  would  yield,  in  ordinary  seasons,  fifty  to  sixty  bushels 
Indian  corn  to  the  acre.  The  rows  four  feet  apart,  and  the  plants  in- 
tended to  be  six  inches  apart  in  the  rows,  but  which,  on  taking  off  the 


LOVERING'S  EXPEBIMENTS.       257 

crop,  proved  to  be  a  little  over  seven  inches  apart.  When  the  canes 
were  about  eighteen  inches  in  height,  I  had  the  suckers  removed. 
During  the  month  of  June  I  passed  the  hoe-harrow  through  it  twice,  a 
man  following  with  the  hand-hoe,  as  in  the  case  of  Indian  corn.  It 
was  then  left  to  take  care  of  itself.  It  grew  rapidly  and  evenly,  and 
attained  the  height  of  twelve  to  fourteen  feet. 

My  apparatus  and  utensils  for  conducting  the  experiments  consisted 
of  the  following,  viz.  : 

A  pair  of  iron  rollers,  seven  inches  diameter  and  twelve  inches  long, 
set  in  a  frame  one  eighth  of  an  inch  apart,  with  spout  to  catch  and 
collect  the  juice,  and  a  crank  turned  by  hand  ;  a  few  sugar  moulds 
and  pots  ;  some  ivory  black  or  animal  carbon  ;  two  filters,  made  of 
common  bed  ticking,  in  the  shape  of  an  elongated  pudding  bag  ;  a 
thermometer,  Beaume's  Pese-Sirop  or  saccharometer,  and  a  polariscope. 
All  the  other  utensils  I  obtained  from  the  kitchen,  viz. ;  a  copper 
kettle  of  ten  gallons  capacity,  a  ladle,  some  tin  pans,  bowls,  buckets, 
&c.,  to  contain  the  juice. 

FIEST  POLARIS COPIC   OBSERVATION. 

Sept.  28. 

Temperature,       Qf  two  canes  took  the  first  joints  above   the  stay 

noon,  71     i . 

Wind    S.  W.    roots — 

Clear. 
1st  joint,  9  inches  long,  weighed   -       -       -       -       -       -  118.854  grammes. 

2d      "      8      "        "  "  .-.-.--          93.742          " 

Weight  of  1st  joints  of  two  canes, 212.596         " 

After  passing  these  three  times  through  the  rollers,  the  bagasse 

weighed 64.380         " 

Leaving,  as  weight  of  juice,  (69.T  per  cent,)        -       -       -       -       148.216         " 
Measured  the  juice,  and  found  135  fluid  grammes— specific  gravity,       1  068 

After  precipitation  by  basic  acetate  of  lead,  of  a  voluminous  green 
colored  flocculent  substance,  it  filtered  with  difficulty,  then  completed 
the  decolorization  by  passing  it  through  animal  carbon,  and  found  by 
first  observation  in  polariscope, 

A  deflection  of  the  ray,  right,  27°     )  „„  7    .  ,  . 

Add  10  per  cent,  for  dilution  by  precipitant        2°.7  ) 

After  inversion  by  H.C1.  left  12°.0  )    +ArnnAr«.tnra  97° 

Add  10  per  cent,  as  above,  1°.2  f    temperai      ,27, 

Sum  of  inversion, 


258  APPENDIX. 

This  sum  of  inversion,  (42°. 9)  at  temperature  27°,  indicates  54.35 
grammes  of  pure  dry  sugar  to  the  litre  of  juice,  and  by  reference  to 
past  results  it  is  found  that  204.24  grammes  of  sugar  per  litre,  equal 
18.82  grammes  per  100,  or  18.82  per  cent.  Then,  as  204.24  :  18.82 
::  54.35  :  5.008  per  cent,  of  sugar  in  the  juice,  and  as  100  :  5.008  :: 
69.7  :  3.49  per  cent,  of  sugar  in  the  cane.  A  second  observation  in 
polariscope,  of  the  juice  from  the  two  joints  of  the  same  canes  next 
above  these,  indicated  5.57  per  cent,  of  sugar  in  the  juice,  proving  them 
to  be  richer  than  those  nearer  the  ground. 

FIEST  PRACTICAL  EXPERIMENT. 

Sept.  so.  The  fact  of  the  presence  of  crystallizable  sugar  in  the 

40°,  M.  66°.  cane  being  established,  I  proceeded  to  cut  and  grind 
twenty  feet  of  a  row,  and  passed  the  thirty  canes  which  it  produced 
three  times  through  the  rollers ;  about  one  fourth  of  the  seed  had 
changed  to  a  dark  glistening  brown  color,  but  was  still  milky ;  the 
remainder  was  quite  green ;  ground  six  to  eight  of  the  lower  joints, 
which  together  yielded  three  and  a  half  .gallons  of  juice,  weighing  9° 
Beaume  ;  neutralized  the  free  acid  by  adding  milk  of  lime ;  clarified 
with  eggs  and  boiled  it  down  to  240°  Fahrenheit. 

This  first  experiment  looked  discouraging  and  unpromising  at  every 
step ;  its  product  was  a  very  dark,  thick,  viscid  mass,  apparently  a 
caput  mortuum  ;  it  stood  six  days  without  the  sign  of  a  crystal,  when 
it  was  placed  over  a  flue  and  kept  warm  four  days  longer,  when  I 
found  a  pretty  good  crop  of  soft  crystals,  the  whole  very  similar  to  the 
Melada,"  obtained  from  Cuba,  but  of  darker  color. 

SECOND  EXPERIMENT. 

Oct.  13,  About  two  weeks  having  elapsed  since  the  first  experi- 

T650^  M  T2°H*  meQt>  the  weather  in  the  interim  having  been  quite  warm, 
8.  E.  cloudy,  temperature  at  8  A.  M.  40°  to  52°,  and  at  noon  66°  to 
75°  Fahrenheit ;  and  about  one  half  the  seed  being  ripe,  I  determined 
to  try  it  again,  but  not  being  very  sanguine  of  success,  no  polariscopic 
observation  was  taken. 

Cut  and  ground  fifty  feet  of  a  row,  which  produced  eighty-eight 
canes,  and  yielded  eight  gallons  of  juice,  weighing  10°  Beaume  (one 


LOVERING'S  EXPERIMENTS.  259 

degree  more  than  the  previous  cutting),  from  the  six  and  seven  lower 
joints  ;  juice  slightly  acid .  First  clarification  four  and  three  quarter 
gallons,  neutralized  with  three  tablespoonsful  of  milk  of  lime,  stirred  in 
one  pound  fine  bone  black,  and  three  eggs,  and  placed  it  over  a  slow 
fire;  at  215°  Fahrenheit  took  off  a  very  dense,  thick,  green  scum-, 
when  at  162°  Fahrenheit  it  marked  1k°  Beaume. 

A  second  parcel  of  juice  from  this  grinding  (three  and  a  quarter 
gallons)  was  treated  in  the  same  manner,  and  set  aside,  both  having 
been  first  boiled  down  to  22°  Beaume. 

Oct.  14,  Cut  and  ground  fifty  feet ;  eighty-one  canes,  produced 

54°mn'oonAVo°'  seven  and  a  quarter  gallons  juice,  10°  Beaume,  which 
N.  w.  clear.  was  treated  as  above,  except  that  the  eggs  were 
omitted. 

Temp.  8  A.  M.  Cut  and  ground  fifty  feet,  produced  eight  and  a 
N. '  E.°°heavy  quarter  gallons  juice,  weighing  10°  Beaume. 

rain. 

Ten?CY  A  M  ^ut  an<*  ground  fi%  feet>  eighty-six  canes,  eight  and 
46°,  noon  60"!  three  eighths  gallons,  10°  Beaume. 

N.  W.  stormy. 

The  whole  of  the  foregoing  four  parcels  were  at  this  stage  of  the  pro- 
cess concentrated  to  22°  Beaume,  and  set  aside  until  I  had  completed 
the  series  on  the  21st  October ;  they  were  then  collected  together,  and 
again  clarified  with  eggs,  and  a  second  scum  taken  off;  they  were 
then  again  placed  over  the  fire,  and  when  at  the  temperature  of  225° 
Fahrenheit,  clear  lime  water  in  small  quantities  was  added  to  coagulate 
the  vegetable  albumen,  which  is  not  disengaged  at  a  lower  temperature, 
but  which  is  then  observed  as  a  whitish  scum,  very  tenacious  and 
glutinous,  and  is  very  detrimental  to  crystallization.  After  the  vari- 
ous delays,  heatings  and  re-heatings  consequent  on  my  limited  means 
of  working,  (the  great  disadvantage  of  which,  those  acquainted  with 
the  subject  only  can  appreciate,)  I  commenced  filtering  the  whole,  but 
found  it  so  ropy  and  glutinous  that  it  would  not  pass  through  ;  diluted 
it  to  10°  Beaume,  when  it  came  through  tolerably  bright ;  then  passed 
it  through  five  feet  of  animal  black  ;  it  parted  with  its  coloring  .matter 
very  freely. 


260  APPENDIX. 

Temp  VA  M        Divided  the  product  into  three  parts,  and  boiled  it  as 

° 


First  part  to  230°  Fahrenheit.  This  stood  an  hour  without 
crystallizing  ;  found  it  too  low,  although  the  thumb  and  finger  proof 
indicated  otherwise. 

Second  part  to  246°  Fahrenheit  ;  which  was  added  to  the  first,  and 
in  a  few  minutes  crystals  began  to  appear. 

Third  part  to  238°  ;  being  the  mean  of  the  other  two.  On  finishing 
this,  the  two  preceding  had  formed  a  thick,  opaque  mass  of  good 

crystals. 

Filled  one  mould,  weight  20  Ibs. 
Weight  of  mould,  -       -    4J 

-  net  weight  15}  Ibs. 

Filled  one  mould,      -       14*  Ibs. 

Uo^    ',   ;    -3  -   .  _™_ibs. 

Total  net  weight,  -  -  -       -    25}  Ibs. 

and  next  morning  set  them  on  pots  to  drain.  Also  boiled  down  the 
juice  from  the  tops,  four  and  three  quarters  gallons,  which  produced 
with  the  scum  thirteen  and  a  half  pounds  molasses. 

Knocked  out  the  proceeds  of  this  experiment  with  the 


8°  Vctear60'1   f°n°wing  results,  viz.  : 

1  mould,  gross  weight,  20    Ibs. 
tare,                  4J    " 
—                    net  weight  15} 
weight  of  molasses,                                    8} 

1      "       gross  weight,  14*  Ibs, 

;lbs. 
Sugar.    Molasses 
net  weight  7  Ibs.      8}  Ibs. 

net  weight  10    Ibs. 
weight  of  molasses,  5* 

—  net  weight  4i  Ibs.    5Hbs. 

Add  molasses  made  from  the  tops,  as  above,  13*  Ibs. 

Total  weight  of  product  of  two  hundred  feet  of  a  row,  Ibs.  11.50      27.25 

Fifty  rows,  four  feet  apart  and  two  hundred  and  eighteen 

leet  long,  constitute  an  acre,  and  two  hundred  feet 

of  a  row  is  less  than  one  fiftieth  part  of  an  acre  by 

eighteen  feet,  therefore  add  pro  rata,  1.08        2.45 

Product  of  one  fiftieth  part  of  an  acre  in  Ibs.  12.53      29.70 

Multiply  by  50  50 

Product  of  an  acre  in  Ibs.  625.50  1485.00 

A  gallon  of  molasses  weighs  twelve  pounds,  therefore,  divide  1485 
by  12,  and  we  have,  gallons,  123.75. 

For  the  acre  625J  pounds  sugar,  and  123f  gallons  molasses,  pro- 


LOVERINGS  EXPERIMENTS..  261 

duced  from  18,148  canes,  yielding  1,737  gallons  juice,  weighing  nine 
pounds  per  gallon,  or  15,633  pounds,  being  four  per  cent,  of  sugar 
and  9.50  per  cent,  of  molasses,  or  13.50  per  cent,  together. 

This  sugar  is  of  a  yellowish  brown  color,  about  as  dry  as,  and  about 
the  color  of  second  quality  Cuba  sugar,  such  as  is  used  by  refiners. 
(See  sample  No.  2.) 

THIED  EXPERIMENT. 

Oct.  23,  The  foregoing  favorable  progress  induced  me  to  make 

^se^it  55°M'  an°ther  trial  on  a  larger  scale.  The  weather  looked 
F°ggy-  threatening,  and  as  a  precaution,  I  cut  five  hundred  feet 

of  canes,  and  stored  it  in  the  barn,  to  be  used  in  quantities  conforming 
to  my  means  of  working. 

Nearly  a  month  having  elapsed  since  the  first  polariscopic  observation 
was  taken,  and  two  weeks  since  the  second  practical  experiment,  having 
had  several  heavy  white  frosts,  and  three  nights  of  ice,  one  eighth  to 
three  sixteenths  of  an  inch  in  thickness,  I  concluded  to  have  another 
examination  by  polarized  light,  to  see  the  effect  of  these  changes,  when 
I  was  gratified  to  find  the  following  results ;  juice  weighing  full  10° 
Beaume : 
3? teSertn? Cation,  ™  }  60.5  right 


nt  as  above,  0°.2  ) 

Sum  of  inversion,  62°.T 

This  sum  of  inversion,  (62°.7,)  at  temperature  25°,  indicated  79.06 
grammes  of  sugar  per  litre  of  juice ;  then, 
As  204.24  :  18.82  ::  79.06  :  7.29  per  cent,  of  sugar  in  the  juice. 

Oct.  24,  Feet.  Canes.  Galls,  juice. 

54e™n'oonA60I°!    Ground  100  160  18f  10°  B 

Fog  and  rain. 

Oct.  26, 

Temp.  50°-60°.  "  100  159  18*  10*  B. 

Heavy  rain. 

Oct.  27, 

Temp.46'-52°.  «  100  166  18  1-16  10°  B. 

Very  stormy. 

Oct.  23, 

Temp.  40°-52°.  "  100  149  16*  10°  B. 

Cloudy,  N.  W. 


Temp.  43°-48°.  «  100  148  14J 

Clear,  N.  E. 


262  APPENDIX. 

These  several  parcels  were  clarified  like  the  second  experiment, 
boiled  to  15°  and  18°  Beaume,  and  set  aside  till  November  2d,  when 
I  found  all  but  the  last  day's  work  had  changed  to  a  thick,  liver-like 
mass,  resembling  good  soft  soap,  very  acid,  and  totally  ruined.  The 
last  parcel,  having  stood  a  much  shorter  time  than  the  rest,  was  but 
partially  affected.  It  was  boiled  to  proof,  and  crystallized  very  well. 

I  regret  this  misfortune  less  for  the  trouble  it  cost  me  than  for  the 
failure  of  the  experiment,  for  it  worked  beautifully  in  the  first  stages, 
and  the  last  grinding  crystallized  freely.  The  juice  weighed  heavier 
than  previous  or  subsequent  parcels,  and  would  probably  have  pro- 
duced better  results.  It  taught  me,  however,  the  danger  of  delay,  and 
also  that  no  injury  had  been  sustained  by  the  juice  so  long  as  the 
canes  remained  unground,  the  last  parcel  having  crystallized  perfectly. 

FOURTH  EXPERIMENT. 

Tenf038®-5o0  Since  the  28th  October'  the  weather  has  been  mild 
N.  E.  clear.  and  foggy,  with  heavy  rains ;  temperature  varying  from 
48°  to  60°.  A  very  decidedly  increased  development  of  sugar  in  the 
juice  has  been  ascertained,  viz. :  7.29  per  cent.,  instead  of  five  per 
cent.,  and  I  have  gained  some  experience ;  so,  instead  of  allowing  the 
syrup  to  remain  from  four  to  twelve  days,  still  containing  a  great  por- 
tion of  its  fermentable  impurities,  gradually  undergoing  decomposition 
and  depreciation,  I  remedy  this  evil  to  some  extent,  as  will  be  seen.  I 
also  dispense  with  the  fine  ivory  black  and  the  filtering,  thus  simplify- 
ing the  process. 

No^-  2.  Cut  and  ground  fifty-eight  feet  of  a  row,  one  hundred 

N.  E.  dear.  '  canes,  the  upper  portions  of  the  stalks  turning  yellow, 
leaves  dead  and  dry ;  ground  six  and  seven  of  the  lower  joints,  pro- 
duced ten  gallons  juice,  weighing  10°  Beaume,  much  less  acid  than 
previous  samples,  and  barely  changing  litmus  paper,  neutralized  with 
milk  of  lime,  and  clarified  at  once  perfectly  with  eggs,  passed  it  imme- 
diately through  three  and  a  half  feet  black,  and  boiled  it  to  234° 
Fahrenheit ;  after  standing  an  hour  the  crystals  were  large  and  sharp, 
but  not  very  abundant  till  morning,  it  being  boiled  too  low. 


LOVERING'S  EXPERIMENTS.  263 

°  Cut  and  ground  fifty-eight  feet,  one  hundred  canes, 
ice.  ' '  nine  and  fifteen  sixteenths  gallons,  10°  Beaume,  rather 
more  acid  than  the  last,  clarified  it  fully  as  above,  passed  it  through 
five  feet  black,  and  set  it  aside,  as  it  is  clear  and  bright,  and  contains 
no  feculent  matter. 

Ten?°34°.l62°  Cut  and  ground  fifty-eight  feet,  ninety-four  canes,  nine 
s.  ffi  ' '  and  three  quarter  gallons,  10°  Beaume,  treated  as  above, 
and  set  it  aside. 

Temr°5o°l62°  Weather  changing,  cut  and  ground  fifty-eight  feet, 
s.  cloudy.  ninety-five  canes,  nine  and  five  eighths  gallons,  10° 
Beaume,  treated  as  above  ;  also  ground  the  tops  of  all  the  above  232 
feet,  which  produced  four  gallons,  two  quarts,  and  three  half  pints  of 
juice,  weighing  12°  Beaume,  more  acid  than  the  lower  joints,  treated 
it  the  same,  boiled  it  "to  238°  Fahrenheit,  and  set  it  aside.  In  the 
morning  I  found  a  good  crop  of  crystals,  but  the  mass  thick  and 
viscid,  added  three  tablespoonfuls  clear  lime  water,  heated  it  to 
enable  me  to  pour  it  into  a  mould ;  gross  weight  nine  and  a  half 
pounds,  tare  four  and  a  half  pounds,  net  five  pounds.  On  the  13th 
knocked  it  out,  and  had  three  pounds  good  brown  sugar,  and  two 
pounds  molasses. 

Tom?  54^66°  Boiled  one  half  of  the  remainder  of  the  proceeds  of  the 
South.  *  above  lower  joints  (one  third  of  the  whole  having  been 

boiled  on  the  2d,  as  above  stated)  to  236°  Fahrenheit,  and  added  it  to 
that  boiled  on  the  2d  ;  boiled  the  other  half  to  237°  Fahrenheit 
potted  it  at  176°  Fahrenheit,  very  handsomely  crystallized,  and  very 
light  colored. 

Nov  8 

Temp.  60°-74°.       Withdrew  the  stops  and  set  it  on  pots  to  drain. 

tfov.  9,  The  full  mould  (fifteen  pounds  size)  had  run  one  and 

sfw?'  '  one  eighth  gallons  molasses,  or  syrup ;  if  it  had  been 
boiled  a  little  higher  it  would  have  produced  more  sugar,  and  less 
molasses. 

NOV.  14,  o  The  whole  having  now  stood  seven  days,  and  being 
N.  E.  ice.  '  thoroughly  drained,  weighed  as  follows  : 


264  APPENDIX. 

1  small  mould,  10  Ibs. 
Tare,        4J 

net  weight  sugar,  5i  Ibs. 
1  larger       "    18} 
Tare,        1 

—    «       «  Hi 

Sugar  from  tho  tops, 

Product  of  282  feet  canes,  19.75  Ibs. 

1  pot  molasses,  17  Ibs.,  tare  5  Ibs.  12  Ibs.  net. 

1    »  «         9  "  5  4 

1     "  12}"  5  7.25 

Molasses  from  the  tops,  2 

Product  of  molasses  from  232  feet  canes,  25  25 

236  feet  are  more  than  one  fiftieth  part  of 
an  acre  by  fourteen  feet,  therefore  da- 
duct  pro  rata  ....  1.19  1-52 

Product  of  one  fiftieth  part  of  an  acre,  18.56  28.73 

Multiply  by 50  50 

Product  of  an  acre  in  Ibs.  928.00  1186.50 

A  gallon  of  molasses  weighs  12  Ibs.,  therefore  divided  by  12  for  gallons,  98.87 

and  we  have  928  pounds  sugar  (first  returns)  and  98.87  gallons 
molasses,  made  from  one  acre  (18,277)  of  canes,  which  produced  1847 
gallons  juice,  weighing  at  nine  pounds  per  gallon,  16,623  pounds,  or, 
sugar,  first  crop,  5.58  per  cent.,  molasses,  7.14  per  cent. ;  together, 
12.72  per  cent.* 

This  sugar  is  perfectly  dry,  as  shown  by  Sample  No.  4,  it  worked 
perfectly,  and  without  the  slightest  difficulty,  at  every  stage. 
Tem  °V34lo^48°        Boiled  all  the  molasses  from  the  above  (except  the 
N.  W.  '    two  Ibs.  from  the  tops,  which  was  too  poor  for  recrystal- 

lization)  23.25  Ibs. ;  added  clear  lime  water  until  it  marked  35° 
Beaume  when  boiling  ;  took  off  a  thick,  glutinous  scum,  and  boiled  it 
down  to  243°  Fahrenheit.  In  two  hours  it  produced  a  copious  crop  of 
very  good  crystals.  Allowed  it  to  stand  till  morning,  when  it  was  quite 
solid. 

Dec-  \\  o        Here  an  unfortunate    accident    occurred.      Having 
s.  E.  placed  the  crystallized  mass  over  a  slow  fire,  to  render  it 

fluid  enough  to  cast  into  a  mould,  I  was  called  off  to  a  case  of  illness, 
leaving  it  over  the  fire,  and  being  detained  much  longer  than  I  antici- 
pated, on  returning  I  found  all  the  grain  melted  and  the  molasses  boil- 

*  Neither  the  scales  in  which  this  juice  was  weighed,  nor  the  quart  measure  in 
which  it  was  measured  were  sufliciently  delicate  or  accurate  to  give  precise  results,and 
as  they  form  the  basis  of  these  calculations,  the  per  centages  are  probably  not  absolutely 
exact,  but  they  are  sufficiently  so  for  all  pvactical  purposes. 


LOVEEING'S  EXPERIMENTS.  265 

ng  vehemently,  and  badly  burned.  Much  discouraged,  I  however 
proceeded.  It  crystallized  the  second  time,  and  was  put  into  a  mould. 
December  20.  Weighed  the  sugar  from  the  23.25  Ibs.  molasses  boiled 
on  the  17th  November,  as  follows,  viz. : 

Gross  weight, 11  Ibs. 

Tare, 4f 

Second  crop  of  crystals  from  the  28.25  Ibs.  molasses, 6.25  Ibs. 

Deduct  pro  rata  for  the  fourteen  feet  excess  over  one  fiftieth  of  an  acre,  .878 

Second  returns  from  one  fiftieth  of  an  acre,       ......         5.8T7 

Multiply  by 50 

Product  of  an  acre  from  the  molasses,        .......       293.85 

Then  we  have,  as  the  whole  final  result  of  an  acre  of  canes, 

Sugar.  Molasses. 

1st  returns, 928    Ibs.  1186.50  Ibs. 

2d       "       (Sample  IV.) 293.85 

And  deduct  molasses  converted, 293.85 

1221.85  892.65 

And  12  Ibs.  molasses  per  gallon  gives 74.89  gal. 

Say  sugar,  per  acre,  1221.85  Ibs. ;  molasses,  per  acre,  74.39  gal- 
lons ;  sugar,  per  cent.,  7.35  ;°  molasses,  per  cent.,  5.37  ;  sugar  and 
molasses,  12.72  per  cent. 

I  will  repeat  here,  that,  owing  to  the  accident  before  stated,  this 
sugar,  (Sample  No.  IV.,)  2d  returns,  is  not  nearly  of  so  good  quality 
as  it  otherwise  would  have  been. 

FIFTH  EXPERIMENT. 

November  9.  I  must  now  mention  that  the  last  experiment  was  in- 
tended to  have  been  on  a  considerably  larger  scale  than  those  pre- 
vious. Each  day's  work  was,  however,  kept  distinct  and  separate 
from  the  others,  thus  enabling  me  to  determine  it  at  any  point. 

Having  thus  proceeded  to,  and  finished  the  clarification  of  the  4tli 
parcel,  (Nov.  8th,)  and  the  weather  becoming  and  continuing  very 
warm,  (thermometer  as  high  as  74°,)  I  observed  a  very  sudden  and 
unfavorable  change  in  the  working  of  the  juice.  Instead  of  clarify- 
ing perfectly  and  with  great  facility,  as  at  first,  the  defecation  was  dif- 

*  It  may,  perhaps,  appear  inconsistent  to  the  casual  observer,  to  find  7.85  per  cent, 
of  sugar  obtained,  when  the  juice  only  contained  7.29  per  cent ,  as  shown  by  the  po- 
lariscope.  This  is  readily  explained.  1st.  by  the  causes  stated  in  a  previous  note  ; 
and  2d — the  polariscope  indicates  pure  sugar;  whereas  the  sugar  produced  contains 
about  four  per  cent,  free  moisture,  and  about  three  per  cent,  of  molasses  adhering  to 
the  crystals,  also  gum,  &C.,  which  would  account  for  much  more  than  the  apparent 
excess. 

12 


266  APPENDIX. 

ficult,  the  color  many  shades  darker,  the  juice  gradually  fell  off  in 
weight  from  full  10°  Beaume  to  9°  Beaume,  and  required  ten  feet  of 
granulated  black  to  bring  it  to  the  same  color  as  that  made  six  days 
previously  with  five  feet  black.  I  however  proceeded  (keeping  this 
separate)  to  the  crystallization. 

Boiled  it  to  242°  Fahrenheit,  when  it  produced  good,  hard,  sharp 
crystals  ;  but  finding  the  quantity,  by  measurement,  had  decreased 
very  considerably,  I  took  no  further  note  on  that  head,  but  gave  it 
white  liquor  until  it  was  neat,  (about  the  usual  quantity,)  and  pro- 
duced the  sugar,  (Sample  No.  5,)  being  white  sugar,  directly  from  the 
cane,  without  refining  or  re-melting. 

SIXTH  EXPERIMENT. 

November  27.  Since  the  canes  for  the  fourth  and  most  successful  ex- 
periment were  cut,  on  the  6th  inst.,  the  weather  has  been  very 
changeable.  We  have  had  warm  Indian  summer  weather,  with  heavy 
rains,  also  very  cold  weather,  making  ice  two  inches  in  thickness- 
thermometer  having  varied  from  16°  to  60.  To  try  the  effect  of  these 
changes,  I  cut  one  hundredth  part  of  an  acre,  which  produced  11 
15-16ths  gallons  of  juice  only,  instead  of  nineteen  or  twenty  gallons, 
as  before.  It  had,  however,  regained  its  former  weight  of  full  10° 
Beaume,  but  was  much  more  acid,  rank,  and  dark  colored  than  pre- 
viously. It  clarified  without  difficulty,  but  raised  a  much  thicker 
and  denser  scum,  and  when  concentrated,  was  very  dark  and  molasses- 
like  ;  it  however  produced  good,  hard,  sharp  crystals,  but  the  quantity 
being  much  reduced,  there  was  no  inducement  to  pursue  it  further. 
This  experiment  proves,  however,  that  this  cane  will  withstand  very 
great  vicissitudes  of  weather,  without  the  entire  destruction  of  its 
saccharine  properties. 

SEVENTH  EXPERIMENT. 

Took  the  proceeds  of  the  experiments  that  were  considered  failures, 
viz.,  all  the  third  and  the  poorest  portion  of  the  second,  viz. :  thirty- 
four  pounds  very  indifferent  sugar  ;  refined  it  in  the  open  kettle,  by  the 
old  process,  and  produced  fifteen  pounds  loaf  sugar,  (Sample  No.  7,) 
which  is  a  very  full  yield  for  the  quality  used. 


LOVERING'S  EXPERIMENTS.  267 

The  foregoing  are  all  actual  results  produced  by  myself,  (the  polar- 
iscopic  observations  having  been  taken  on  the  spot,  under  the  supervi- 
sion of  my  partner,  Mr.  William  Morris  Davis)  with  no  object  in 
view  but  the  truth,  and  a  desire  to  contribute  whatever  useful  inform- 
ation I  could  towards  the  solution  of  this  interesting  and  important 
question.  They  are,  I  think,  sufficiently  flattering  in  themselves  to 
warrant  renewed  exertions  on  the  part  of  our  agriculturists  of  the 
Northern  and  Middle  States  especially,  and  perhaps  those  of  the 
South  also,  in  the  pursuit  of  this  promising  branch  of  industry,  to 
the  full  and  profitable  development  of  which  it  is  certainly  capable, 
and  which  it  is  destined  ultimately  to  attain — (as  before  mentioned 
they  have  been  accomplished  without  the  advantages  of  the  powerful 
sugar  mill,  the  vacuum  pan,  and  the  many  other  improved  imple- 
ments and  apparatus  now  in  general  use  in  Louisiana  and  else- 
where) and  they  are  also  very  important  and  interesting  in  many 
respects,  not  apparent  to  those  unacquainted  with  the  subject ;  it  may 
therefore  not  be  superfluous  to  make  some  further  explanatory  re- 
marks : 

1st.  The  mill  used  and  the  power  employed  in  these  experiments 
were  much  less  efficient  than  those  in  general  use  on  sugar  planta- 
tions, and  the  waste  proportionally  greater ;  the  loss  from  which 
causes  I  estimate  at  not  less  than  ten  per  cent. 

2d.  It  is  well  known  to  all  who  are  acquainted  with  sugar  and  sac- 
charine solutions,  that,  by  frequent  heatings  and  coolings,  a  considera- 
ble portion  of  the  crystallizable  is  converted  into  uncrystallizable 
sugar,  and  is  consequently  lost  as  sugar.  In  these  experiments  every 
parcel  was  from  necessity  heated  and  re-heated  from  eight  to  twelve 
different  times. 

3d.  It  is  impossible  to  produce  as  good  results,  whether  as  regards 
quantity  or  quality,  from  small  as  from  large  quantities. 

4th.  This  sugar,  (Sample  No.  4,)  is  quite  dry,  and  will  lose  compara- 
tively nothing  by  drainage  ;  the  yield  would  be  considerably  greater, 
if  it  contained  the  usual  quantity  of  footing  that  is  contained  in  the 
hogshead  when  sold  at  the  plantation,  one  of  which  being  weighed 
there  and  re-weighed  in  Philadelphia,  in  the  month  of  July,  will  be 


268  APPENDIX. 

found  to  have  lost  by  drainage  from  100  to  150  Ibs.,  or  from  10  to  15 
per  cent. 

Assuming  these  propositions  to  be  true,  I  make  the  following  esti- 
mate of  the  probable  yield  of  an  acre  of  canes  of  ordinary  growth, 
such  as  I  have  experimented  upon,  viz. : 

Actual  yield  as  per  Experiment  No.  4,  1221.85  Ibs.  sugar,  74.39  molasses. 

Add  for  Inefficiency  of  mill,         10  per  cent 
For  heating  and  reheating,  &c.,     6 
For  footings,  say  but*  5 

20  per  cent.  244.87 

Probable  yield  per  acre,  Ibs.  1466.22  sugar :  galls.  74.39  molasses. 

Further,  it  will  be  observed  that  my  acre  produced  but  1847  gal- 
lons of  juice.  I  have,  however  seen  published  accounts  of  far  greater 
yield  than  this  ;  one,  for  instance,  in  this  county,  apparently  well  au- 
thenticated, reaching  6,800  gallons  per  acre,  which,  according  to  my 
actual  results,  would  produce  4499  Ibs.  of  sugar,  and  274  gallons  mo- 
lasses— and  according  to  the  foregoing  probable  results,  would  yield 
5389  Ibs.  sugar,  and  274  gallons  to  the  acre.  I  do  not  pronounce 
such  yield  of  juice  impossible,  but  it  will  certainly  be  of  rare  occur- 
rence— a  mean  between  this  and  my  yield  would  be  a  large  return. 

Another  subject  worthy  of  notice  is  the  nature  of  the  season.  My 
impression  is,  that  owing  to  the  lateness  and  coldness  of  the  spring, 
and  the  continued  wet  weather,  the  last  has  been  quite  an  unfavorable 
season  for  the  ripening  and  development  of  the  sugar  in  the  juice,  to 
which  cause  I  think  a  deficiency  in  the  yield  of  at  least  ten  per  cent, 
may  be  attributed,  which  would  further  increase  the  quantity  to 
1612  Ibs.  of  sugar,  and  81  8-10  gallons  molasses,  a  yield  very  nearly 
corresponding  with  that  of  the  best  conducted  plantations  of  Louisiana, 
as  will  be  seen  by  the  following  figures,  which  I  have  collated  from  a 
minute  statement  furnished  to  me  by  the  enterprising  proprietor  of  one 
of  the  most  complete  and  costly  establishments  in  that  region,  (it 
being  furnished  with  vacuum  pans,  and  all  the  most  approved  ma- 
chinery of  later  times,  and  conducted  under  his  own  personal  super- 
vision,) of  the  actual  product  of  one  of  his  plantations  of  266  acres, 

*  These  two  latter  gains  in  sugar  would  be  made  at  the  expense  of  the  molasses, 
taking  from  it  the  gain  which  would  be  realized  by  the  use  of  a  better  mill,  and  there- 
fore leaving  the  quantity  of  molasses  unchanged. 


LOVERING'S  EXPERIMENTS. 


269 


for  eight  consecutive  years.  These  figures  will  also  furnish  useful  data 
for  the  estimation  of  the  cost  of  production  here,  viz. : 

Aggregate  yield  of  juice  from  266  acres  for  eight 

consecutive  years, 4,757,700  gallons. 

Aggregate  yield  of  sugar,        ....        3,626,425  Ibs. 

217,585  gallons. 


COMPAEISON. 

LOUISIANA.  PENNSYLVANIA. 


1,847  gals. 

10° 

0.66  Ibs. 

I  Actual, 1,221.85  Ibs. 

Probable, 1,612.00 

I  Actual, T4.39  gals. 

Probable, 81.88 


Yield  of  juice  per  acre, 2,236  gals. 

Density  of  juice,(Beaum6)  8.44° 

Yield  of  sugar  per  gall,  of  juice,.  .0.76  Ibs. 

Yield  of  sugar  per  acre, 1,704  " 

Yield  of  molasses  per  acre, .102  gals. 

Wood  consumed  per  acre,  8.87  cords,  at 

$2  50  per  cord. 

Coal  for  engine,  0.41  tons  at  $2  50  per  ton. 
Labor,  per  acre,  3.70  days. 


These  details  have  been  extended  to  a  much  greater  length  than 
was  at  first  intended,  but  perhaps  not  beyond  a  useful  limit  for  those 
interested.  To  the  working  farmer  they  may  appear  formidable  and 
prolix  ;  but  he  may,  nevertheless,  gain  some  grains  of  useful  knowl- 
edge from  them  to  repay  for  their  perusal.  The  conclusions  to  be 
drawn  from  them  will  be  seen  by  the  following 


SYNOPSIS. 

1st.  That  it  is  obvious  that  there  is  a  culminating  point  in  the  de- 
velopment of  the  sugar  in  the  cane,  which  is  the  best  time  for  sugar 
making.  This  point  or  season  I  consider  to  be,  when  most  if  not  all 
the  seeds  are  ripe,  and  after  several  frosts  ;  say  when  the  temperature 
falls  to  25°  or  30°  Fahrenheit. 

2d.  That  frost,  or  even  hard  freezing,  does  not  injure  the  juice  nor 
the  sugar,  but  that  warm  Indian  summer  weather,  after  the  frost  and 
hard  freezing,  does  injure  them  very  materially,  and  reduces  both 
quantity  and  quality. 


270  APPENDIX. 

3d.  That  if  the  cane  is  cut  and  housed,  or  shocked  in  the  field  when 
in  its  most  favorable  condition,  it  will  probably  keep  unchanged  for  a 
long  time. 

4th.  That  when  the  juice  is  obtained,  the  process  should  proceed 
continuously  and  without  delay. 

5th.  That  the  clarification  should  be  as  perfect  as  possible  by  the 
time  the  density  reaches  15°  Beaume,  the  syrup  having  the  appear- 
ance of  good  brandy. 

6th.  That  although  eggs  were  used  in  these  small  experiments,  on 
account  of  their  convenience,  bullock's  blood,  if  to  be  had,  is  equally 
good,  and  the  milk  of  lime  alone  will  answer  the  purpose  ;  in  the  latter 
case,  however,  more  constant  and  prolonged  skimming  will  be  required 
to  produce  a  perfect  clarification,  which  is  highly  important. 

7th.  That  the  concentration,  or  boiling  down,  after  clarification, 
should  be  as  rapid  as  possible  without  scorching,  shallow  evaporators 
being  the  best. 

With  these  conditions  secured,  it  is  about  as  easy  to  make  good 
sugar  from  the  Chinese  sugar  cane  as  to  make  a  pot  of  good  mush, 
and  much  easier  than  to  make  a  kettle  of  good  apple  butter. 


APPLICATION   OF  LOVEEING'S  PKOCESS.  271 


INSTRUCTIONS  for  the  Domestic  Manufacture  of  Sugar  and  Syrup,  upon 
a  small  scale,  from  the  Juice  of  the  Sorgho,  being  a  Practical  Applica- 
tion ofJ.S.  LOVERING'S  Process. 

For  the  use  of  persons  unacquainted  with  the  subject,  we  commence 
with  a  brief  statement  of 

GENERAL  PRINCIPLES. 

The  juice  of  the  ripe  Sorgho  is  composed  of 

1.  Crystallizable  sugar,  about  seven  and  a  quarter  per  cent. 

2.  Uncrystallizable  molasses,  about  seven  per  cent. 

3.  Acid. 

4.  Vegetable  mucilage,  or  gum. 

5.  Coloring  matter. 

6.  Water. 

Our  object  is  to  separate  the  sugar  and  molasses. 

The  acid  and  mucilage  prevent  the  sugar  from  crystallizing. 

1.  Our  first  step  will  be  to  neutralize  the  acid  in  the  juice  by  com- 
bining it  with  an  alkali  (lime). 

2.  Our  second  step  will  be  to  remove  the  mucilage  by  the  addition 
of  liquid  albumen  (blood,  eggs,  or  milk)  to  the  cold  juice ;  we  then 
apply  heat ;  the  albumen,  being  heated,  coagulates,  and,  rising  in  the 
form  of  scum,  carries  the  mucilage  with  it.     This  process  is  called 
clarifying,  and  should  be  twice  repeated  at  least. 

3.  Having  now  got  rid  of  the  acid  and  most  of  the  mucilage,  our 
third  step  is  to  remove  the  coloring  matter,  by  filtering  the  clarified 
juice  through  granulated  bone  black. 

But  a  peculiar  mucilage  still  remains,  inseparable  at  a  lower  heat 
than  about  225°  Fahrenheit. 

4.  Our  next  step  will  be  to  boil  the  filtered  juice  to  225°  Fahrenheit, 
and  then  to  add  lime  water.    This  mucilage  then  rises  as  a  scum,  and 
is  removed. 

We  now  have  left  a  solution  composed  of  1.  Sugar.     2.  Molasses. 
3.  Water. 

5.  To  crystallize  the  sugar,  we  must  evaporate  the  excess  of  water, 


272  APPENDIX. 

by  boiling.  Most  of  the  sugar  will  crystallize  when  the  solution  grows 
cold.  The  uncrystallized  part,  we  drain  off  as  molasses. 

These  operations  require  the  greatest  exactness,  for 

If  we  do  not  boil  enough,  the  sugar  contained  in  the  solution  will 
not  crystallize  when  cold ;  or, 

If  we  boil  too  much,  the  molasses  will  become  so  thick  when  it  cools, 
as  to  impair  the  crystallizing  of  the  sugar,  and  cannot  be  separated 
from  it. 

But  how  shall  we  know  when  to  stop  the  boiling? 

By  Hie  heat  of  the  boiling  liquid,  as  marked  by  the  thermometer. 

Pure  water  boils  at  212  degrees  of  Fahrenheit's  thermometer.  You 
cannot  make  it  hotter  without  changing  it  to  steam. 

The  sorgho  juice,  being  a  solution  of  about  fourteen  per  cent,  of 
sugar  and  molasses,  &c.,  in  water,  becomes  three  degrees  hotter  before 
boiling,  and  boils  at  215°  Fahrenheit.  As  the  water  evaporates,  a 
greater  heat  is  required  to  keep  the  concentrated  juice  at  a  boil ;  in 
other  words,  the  juice  grows  hotter  and  hotter.  When  it  reaches  the 
heat  marked  on  the  thermometer  238°  Fahrenheit,  there  is  just  enough 
water  left  to  enable  the  sugar  to  separate  from  the  molasses  when  cold. 

6.  We  now  pour  the  concentrated  juice  into  a  mould,  a  keg,  a  bar- 
rel, or  other  deep  vessel,  with  a  plug  in  the  bottom,  and  allow  it  to  cool. 

7.  When  quite  cold  (say  in  twenty-four  hours),  we  remove  the  plug. 
The  liquid  portion,  being  molasses  with  a  little  sugar  and  water, 
gradually  drains  out,  leaving  the  sugar  dry  in  from  four  to  ten  days. 

It  is  also  important  to  remember 

That  the  juice  begins  to  ferment  almost  as  soon  as  it  leaves  the 
cane,  and  therefore,  should  be  neutralized,  clarified,  and  boiled  without 
delay.  A  very  few  hours'  delay  will  spoil  it. 

A  long  continued  exposure  to  heat  gradually  converts  crystallizable 
sugar  into  uncrystallizable  molasses,  therefore,  the  evaporation  should 
be  as  rapid  as  possible. 

A  concentrated  solution  of  sugar  and  molasses  is  very  liable  to  burn, 
and  should,  therefore,  be  carefully  watched,  and  exposed  to  a  more  and 
more  moderate  fire  as  the  evaporation  advances. 

The  use  of  a  saccharometer  is  to  indicate  the  relative  weight  or 


APPLICATION   OF   LOVERING'S   PROCESS.  273 

density  of  a  liquid  as  compared  with  water.  This  density  depends 
upon  the  amount  of  sugar,  or  other  heavy  substances  held  in  solution 
Consequently,  the  degree  of  density  indicated  by  the  saecharometer  is 
an  index  of  the  proportion  of  sugar,  &c.,  contained  in  the  juice. 

It  is  simply  a  hollow  tube  terminating  in  a  bulb,  loaded  with  shot) 
to  keep  the  bulb  down  and  the  tube  upright.  Floating  in  pure  water, 
the  tube,  at  the  point  where  it  appears  above  the  surface,  marks  0. 
But  in  proportion  as  the  liquid  is  heavier,  the  bulb  does  not  sink  so 
deep,  and  more  of  the  tube  appears  above  the  surface.  The  density 
of  the  sorgho  juice,  cold,  is  about  10°  Beaume,  so  called  from  Beaume, 
the  inventor. 

If  your  kettles  or  moulds  are  of  iron,  give  them  two  good  coats  of 
white  paint  inside,  drying  each  coat  thoroughly.  This  prevents  the 
sugar  from  being  made  dark  by  contact  with  iron,  which  will  be  the 
case  if  the  slightest  acid  be  present.  Before  using  them,  scald  them 
thoroughly  twice,  letting  boiling  water  stand  in  them  until  cold,  to 
remove  the  taste  of  the  paint. 

NECESSARY  UTENSILS,  MACHINERY,  &c. 

1.  A  thermometer  marking  250°  Fahrenheit.    One  without  a  case, 
or  which  can  be  removed  from  the  case. 

2.  A  saecharometer,  or  Pese  Sirop,  scale  of  Beaume. 

You  had  better  get  two  of  both  the  above,  to  provide  against  accident. 

3.  A  few  sheets  of  litmus  paper. 

4.  Two  kettles  of  copper,  brass,  or  iron,  holding  twenty-five  gallons 
each  ;  one  of  these  may  be  smaller  than  the  other,  but  if  so,  should  be 
as  large  a  diameter,  only  shallower. 

5.  Three,  or  more,  large  iron  sugar  moulds,  holding  twelve  gallons 
each.    If  you  cannot  get  the  sugar  moulds,  three  long,  narrow  twelve 
gallon  kegs  will  answer. 

6.  Three  five  gallon  pots  of  glazed  earthen  or  stone  ware,  with 
mouths  somewhat  smaller  than  the  caps  of  the  sugar  moulds.    If  you 
use  kegs  instead  of  moulds  you  can  use  pails  instead  of  pots. 

7.  A  barrel  of  granulated  (not  pulverized)  bone  black,  such  as  is 
used  by  sugar  refiners. 

12* 


274  APPENDIX. 

8.  Pour  ten  gallon  tubs.      (Two  water-tight  whiskey  or  cider  bar- 
rels, sawed  across  the  center,  will  answer.) 

9.  A  yard  of  thick  heavy  bed  ticking. 

10.  A  circular  piece  of  coarse  wire  gauze,  to  fit  the  inside  of  the 
sugar  mould  or  keg,  three  inches  above  the  lower  end. 

11.  A  circular  piece  of  half  inch  board,  full  of  gimblet  holes,  to  fit 
the  inside  of  the  sugar  mould  or  keg,  three  inches  above  the  lower  end. 

12.  A  shallow  perforated  iron  or  tin  skimmer. 

13.  A  large  iron  or  tin  dipper,  or  ladle. 

14.  A  sugar  mill ;  if  to  work  by  hand,  two  parallel,  horizontal  iron 
rollers,  set  firmly  in  a  frame,  one  eighth  of  an  inch  apart,  and  turned 
by  a  crank,  with  a  spout  to  catch  and  collect  the  juice.    If  by  horse 
power,  three  rollers  set  closer  together,  will  be  more  effective.    The 
greater  the  compression  of  the  canes,  the  larger  the  yield  of  juice. 

15.  Two  simple  furnaces,  or  fire  places  of  brfck,  upon  which  to  place 
the  two  kettles.   One  larger  furnace,  with  two  holes,  and  one  fire  place 
under  both  kettles,  will  do,  if  the  kettles  are  movable.    But  as  the 
labor  and  delay  of  lifting  them  off  and  on  is  great,  two  separate  arches 
are  better.     These  furnaces  must  have  a  flue,  communicating  with  a 
chimney,  to  create  draft,  and  carry  off  the  smoke. 

16.  A  bushel  of  quick  lime. 

17.  A  gallon  of  fresh  bullock's  blood,  or  twelve  dozen  of  eggs,  or 
twelve  quarts  of  milk.    Either  will  do,  but  one  of  the  first  two  is  pre- 
ferable. 

PEELIMINAEIBS. 

Having  your  mill  ready,  your  furnaces  built,  your  kettles  and  other 
utensils  above  described,  on  the  spot ;  you  will  need  two  men,  if  you 
use  a  hand  mill,  to  relieve  each  other  at  the  crank,  the  one  turning  it, 
while  the  other  passes  the  canes,  one  at  a  time,  twice  through  the 
rollers,  as  you  must  work  the  mill  without  cessation  throughout  the  day, 
to  keep  the  kettles  constantly  supplied.  If  you  use  horse  power,  two 
boys  will  suffice,  one  to  drive  the  horse,  the  other  to  pass  the  canes 
through,  several  at  a  time. 

1.  Provide  abundant  dry  fuel,  close  at  hand,  and  ready  for  imme- 
diate use. 


APPLICATION  OF  LOVERING'S  PROCESS.  275 

2.  Cut  and  deposit  at  the  mill  enough  canes  for  the  day's  work,  say 
ten  canes  for  each  gallon  of  juice  required.     Place  two  tubs  (which  we 
will  call  tubs  1  and  2)  at  the  mill  ready  to  receive  the  juice. 

3.  Prepare  a  bone  black  filter  as  follows  : 

Take  one  of  the  sugar  moulds  (which  we  will  call  mould  No.  1.) 
About  three  inches  from  the  small  end,  fit  into  it  the  circular  piece  of 
half  inch  board  full  of  small  holes.  Upon  this,  lay  the  circular  piece 
of  wire  gauze  ;  over  the  gauze  lay  a  piece  of  heavy  ticking  (or  blanket 
of  several  thicknesses),  laying  the  edges  carefully  round  the  sides  of 
the  mould,  so  as  to  prevent  the  bone  black  from  escaping ;  stop  the 
hole  at  the  small  end  of  the  mould,  half  fill  the  mould  with  hot  water, 
then  pour  in  as  much  bone  black  as  the  mould  will  hold,  leaving  about 
three  inches  of  space  on  top.  Set  the  filter,  thus  made,  upon  another 
of  the  tubs  (which  we  will  call  tub  No.  3),  to  serve  as  a  cistern  to 
receive  the  filtered  juice.  Or,  a  filter  may  be  made  of  a  tight  keg  or 
barrel,  set  on  end,  with  a  hole  in  the  bottom,  stopped  with  a  plug  or 
faucet,  and  having  a  wooden  second,  or  false  bottom,  perforated  witli 
gimblet  holes,  three  inches  above  the  first ;  cover  this  with  a  piece  of 
ticking  or  blanket,  and  on  that  put  the  bone  black,  as  directed. 

4.  Prepare  some  milk  of  lime  as  follows  : 

Put  about  a  gallon  of  quick  lime  into  a  pail,  slacken  it  with  water, 
until  it  resembles  milk  in  appearance  and  consistency.  Set  it  asidCj 
and  stir  it  before  using. 

5.  Prepare  some  lime  water  as  follows  : 

Put  a  gallon  of  quick  lime  into  another  pail,  slacken  it,  fill  up  the 
pail  with  water,  stir  it  thoroughly,  let  the  lime  settle.  The  clear  water 
will  be  a  saturated  solution  of  lime,  and  is  called  lime  water.  Do  not 
stir  this  again,  but  use  it  clear.  , 

PEOOESS  OP  MAKING  THE  SUGAR. 

When  the  seeds  of  the  sorgho  are  at  least  three  fourths  ripe,  or  if 
in  a  cold  climate,  when  a  hard  frost  has  come,  cut  your  canes  just  above 
the  ground,  strip  off  the  leaves  and  seed  heads,  and  cut  each  cane  into 
two  parts,  separating  the  eight  lower  joints  from  the  upper  ones.  Lay 
aside  the  upper  joints,  which  contain  but  little  sugar,  but  will  make 
good  molasses. 


276  APPENDIX. 

Pass  the  lower  joints  through  the  rollers  twice  ;  let  the  juice  flow 
into  tubs  1  and  2.  When  about  twenty  gallons  of  juice  are  ready,  put 
into  one  of  the  kettles,  which  we  will  call  kettle  No.  1,  or  the  clarifier, 
three  gills  of  blood,  or  the  whites  of  eight  eggs,  well  beaten.  If  you 
have  neither,  two  pints  of  milk  will  answer,  but  not  so  well.  Add  six 
tablespoonsful  of  milk  of  lime  previously  prepared,  and  stirred  before 
using.  Add  about  a  gallon  of  juice,  and  stir  the  whole  thoroughly 
together. 

Now  dip  into  one  of  the  tubs  of  unmixed  juice  a  small  strip  of  the 
blue  litmus  paper.  It  will  immediately  turn  red,  more  or  less  vivid  in 
proportion  to  the  acidity  of  the  juice.  Lay  the  strip  of  litmus  paper 
aside,  and  add  to  kettle  No.  1  about  nineteen  gallons  more  of  juice  ; 
stir  the  whole.  Then  dip  the  strip  of  reddened  litmus  paper  into  the 
kettle.  If  it  again  become  blue,  the  acid  is  entirely  neutralized.  If 
not,  continue  to  stir  in  milk  of  lime  in  small  quantities,  and  to  test 
with  the  litmus  paper,  until  its  original  blue  color  is  restored. 

Now  light  a  fire  under  kettle  No.  1.  As  the  juice  grows  hot  a 
thick  scum  will  rise.  Do  not  disturb  it,  but  bring  the  juice  to  a  boil. 
To  be  sure  that  it  does  boil,  remove  a  little  of  the  scum  with  the 
skimmer,  and  insert  your  thermometer.  When  it  marks  215°  Fahren- 
heit, and  the  scum  begins  to  roll  over,  put  out  the  fire  immediately,  or 
remove  the  kettle.  Let  it  stand  ten  or  fifteen  minutes.  Then  care- 
fully remove  the  scum  with  the  skimmer  into  a  third  pail.  Then  boil 
again. 

When  the  saccharometer  marks  15°  Beaume  in  the  boiling  juice, 
extinguish  the  fire,  or  remove  the  kettle,  and  let  it  cool  to  160°  Fah- 
renheit, or  cooler.  Now  stir  in  six  more  eggs  well  beaten,  or  two 
gills  of  blood,  or  one  pint  of  milk.  Omit  the  lime.  Again  bring  it 
to  a  boil,  again  extinguish  the  fire,  or  remove  the  kettle  ;  and,  after 
standing  ten  minutes,  remove  the  scum  as  before.  Then  ladle  the  clear 
juice  into  the  bone  black  filter,  (see  preliminaries  No.  3,)  having  first 
withdrawn  the  stopper,  allowing  the  warm  water  to  flow  out  below, 
as  the  juice  is  poured  in  above,  being  careful  to  keep  the  filter  full  of 
liquid.  When  the  water  below  begins  to  run  sweet,  marking  3° 
Beaum6,  throw  away  what  has  previously  run  out,  and  receive  the  re- 
mainder in  tub  No.  3. 


APPLICATION  OF  LOVERIN&'s  PROCESS.  277 

We  tire  now  ready  to  continue  evaporation,  and  it  will  be  better  to 
do  so  in  smaller  quantities,  as  in  a  shallower  mass  the  concentration 
will  be  more  rapid.  Therefore,  when  about  ten  gallons  have  passed 
through  the  filter  into  tub  3,  ladle  into  kettle  No.  2,  which  now  first 
comes  into  use,  and  which  we  will  call  the  Evaporator.  Boil  to  225° 
Fahrenheit.  Then  put  in  a  gill  of  clear  lime  water  (see  preliminaries 
No.  5).  If  a  dirty  white  scum  arises,  skim  it  off,  and  continue  to  add 
a  little  more  lime  water  every  few  minutes  until  no  scum  rises.  Con- 
tinue to  boil  to  238°  Fahrenheit.  If  it  boil  over,  put  in  a  piece  of 
butter  the  size  of  a  walnut ;  then  remove  the  kettle,  or  put  out  the 
fire,  and  pour  into  a  tub  which  we  will  call  No.  4. 

By  this  time  ten  gallons  more  will  have  passed  through  the  filter. 
Ladle  it  into  kettle  No.  2,  which  we  have  just  emptied,  boil  to  225° 
Fahrenheit,  clarify  with  lime  water  as  before,  boil  to  238°  Fahrenheit, 
and  add  it  to  the  contents  of  tub  No.  4,  stirring  the  two  together. 

Previously,  however,  as  soon  as  kettle  No.  1  has  been  emptied  upon 
the  bone  black  filter,  put  into  kettle  No.  1  milk  of  lime  and  eggs,  (or 
blood,  or  milk,)  as  before,  and  neutralize  and  clarify  twenty  gallons 
more  of  fresh  juice  from  the  mill,  which  has  been  grinding  without 
interruption.  This  second  charge  of  kettle  No.  1  should  be  neutral- 
ized, tested  with  litmus  paper,  heated  to  215°  Fahrenheit,  cooled, 
skimmed,  boiled  to  15°  Beaume,  cooled  again,  a  second  time  clarified 
with  eggs,  skimmed  again,  and  passed  through  the  filter  ;  all  this 
being  done  simultaneously  with  the  filtering  and  evaporation  of  the 
first  charge  of  kettle  No.  1.  It  will  then  be  put,  in  its  turn,  into  ket- 
tle No.  2,  now  again  empty,  ten  gallons  at  a  time,  boiled  to  225° 
Fahrenheit,  clarified  a  third  time  with  lime  water,  skimmed,  evaporated 
to  238°  Fahrenheit,  and  added  to  the  contents  of  tub  No.  4. 

While  the  second  charge  of  kettle  No.  1  is  passing  through  the  fil- 
ter and  kettle  No.  2,  a  third  charge  of  twenty  gallons  of  fresh  juice 
will  be  neutralized  and  clarified  in  kettle  No.  1. 

While  the  third  charge  from  kettle  No.  1  is  passing  through  the  fil- 
ter and  kettle  No.  2,  a  fourth  charge  of  twenty  gallons  of  fresh  juice 
will  be  neutralized  and  clarified  in  kettle  No.  1,  to  follow  the  others, 
when  boiled  down  to  238°  Fahrenheit,  into  tub  No.  4. 


278  APPENDIX. 

"When  as  much  juice  as  can  be  boiled  the  same  day  has  been  ex- 
pressed, stop  the  mill. 

Eighty  gallons  of  juice  clarified  and  boiled  down  to  238°  Fahren- 
heit will  be  reduced  to  something  over  twelve  gallons,  or  enough  to  fill 
one  of  the  sugar  moulds. 

When  the  day's  boiling  is  completed,  put  the  contents  of  tub  No.  4 
into  a  sugar  mould  or  keg,  having  previously  plugged  the  hole.  Set 
it  in  a  warm  place,  in  no  case  colder  than  60°  Fahrenheit,  if  70°  or 
80°,  so  much  the  better.  This  completes  the  day's  work. 

When  cold,  the  next  day,  it  will  be  a  solid  mass  of  crystallized 
sugar.  Then  withdraw  the  stopper,  set  the  mould  on  an  earthen  pot 
or  pail ;  in  from  four  to  seven  days  the  molasses  will  have  ceased  to 
drain  out ;  then  turn  over  the  mould  upon  a  clean  board  or  table, 
strike  the  rim  smartly  once  or  twice,  and  the  sugar  will  slide  from  the 
mould  in  a  solid  mass.  Break  it  up  with  a  shovel,  and  it  is  fit  for 
use.  The  contents  of  this  mould  should  be  from  forty  to  fifty  pounds 
of  dry,  yellow  sugar,  and  about  four  gallons  of  excellent  molasses  will 
have  dripped  from  it  into  the  jar. 

If  preferred,  the  sugar  making  may  here  terminate ;  but,  as  the 
purifying  power  of  the  bone  black  filter  is  not  yet  exhausted,  and  as 
the  whole  labor  and  expense  of  preparation  have  been  already  in- 
curred, it  will  be  best  to  continue  at  least  a  second  and  third  day. 

SECOND   DAY. 

The  "process  will  be  in  all  respects  a  repetition  of  the  first  day's 
work,  and  the  result  will  be  to  fill  an  additional  sugar  mould  or  keg. 

THIRD   DAT. 

The  process  will  be  a  repetition  of  the  above  ;  but  the  filter  being 
now  exhausted,  after  the  third  day,  it  will  be  necessary  to  change  the 
bone  black.  Before  emptying  the  filter,  or  stopping  the  third  day's 
work,  however,  pass  cold  water  through  the  filter,  which,  so  long  as  it 
runs  sweet  enough  to  mark  3°  Beaume,  is  to  be  added  to  the  juice  of 
the  upper  joints,  of  which  we  are  about  to  speak. 


APPLICATION  OF  LOVEKING-'S  PROCESS.  279 

MOLASSES. 

At  the  close  of  the  sugar  making,  pass  through  the  mill  the  upper 
joints  of  the  canes,  previously  laid  aside.  Add  to  the  juice  the  liquid 
portion  of  the  scum  in  third  pail,  together  with  the  washings  of  the 
filter,  of  tub  No.  4,  and  of  other  utensils.  Neutralize  the  acid  with 
milk  of  lime,  and  test  with  litmus  paper  as  before.  Clarify  twice  with 
eggs,  (or  blood,  or  milk,)  but  omit,  if  preferred,  the  filtering  through 
bone  black.  Boil  finally  only  to  228°  Fahrenheit,  instead  of  238° 
Fahrenheit,  as  for  sugar. 

The  product,  when  cool,  will  be  about  eighteen  gallons  of  excellent 
syrup.  From  three  days'  work,  of  two  hundred  and  forty  gallons  of 
juice — from  say  two  thousand  canes  —in  all  there  should  be  a  total 
product  of  about  one  hundred  and  twenty-five  pounds  to  one  hundred 
and  fifty  pounds  of  sugar,  and  twenty-seven  gallons  molasses. 

This  operation  being  on  a  very  small  scale,  and  with  a  hand  mill,  is 
carried  on  under  great  disadvantages.  The  same  labor  on  a  larger 
scale  would  produce  much  greater  results.  The  process  and  routine 
here  given  will  answer  for  larger  operations.  It  would  be  better, 
however,  especially  if  the  quantity  is  increased,  to  have  the  second  or 
evaporating  kettle  of  greater  length  and  breadth,  and  as  shallow  as 
possible  to  expedite  the  evaporation.  A  larger  and  longer  bone  black 
filter  will  also  be  needed. 

Either  sugar  or  molasses  of  good  quality,  but  of  darker  color,  may 
be  made  by  the  above  process,  omitting  the  bone  black.  If  it  be 
desired  to  make  syrup  only,  stop  the  boiling  at  228°  Fahrenheit. 

If  white  sugar  is  desired,  the  following  additional  process  will  be 
necessary.  On  the  third  day  after  the  sugar  has  been  put  into  the 
moulds,  the  greater  part  of  the  molasses  having  drained  from  it,  scrape 
off,  with  a  knife,  the  crust  on  top  of  the  sugar,  leaving  a  smooth  granu- 
lated surface,  hollowing  a  little  to  the  center.  Moisten  the  scrapings 
with  cold  water  into  a  thin  paste,  and  replace  them  on  the  sugar. 
Next  day  dissolve  enough  refined  sugar,  the  whiter  the  better,  in  six 
quarts  of  water,  to  make  a  solution  marking,  when  boiling  hot,  32® 
Beaume.  Pour  one  inch  in  depth  of  this  solution,  cold,  on  top  of  the 
sugar.  On  each  of  the  two  following  days,  put  on  a  similar  quantity. 


280 


APPENDIX. 


After  the  sugar  ceases  to  drain,  knock  out  the  loaf  ;  the  upper  portion 
will  be  white,  the  lower  part  light  yellow.  Divide  the  loaf  and  crush 
each  portion  separately. 

If  by  any  mistake,  or  carelessness,  by  burning  or  overboiling,  or  by 
the  immaturity  of  the  canes,  the  molasses  does  not  begin  to  drain  from 
the  mould  on  the  second  or  third  day,  run  an  awl,  a  large  nail,  or  other 
sharp  iron  instrument,  into  the  hole  at  the  foot  of  the  mould  some  two 
or  three  inches,  and  then  withdraw  it.  If,  after  ten  days  longer  in  the 
warmest  place  you  have,  it  still  fails  to  run,  put  the  contents  into  a 
kettle,  add  a  little  water,  heat  it  to  228°  Fahrenheit,  and  it  will  make 
good  syrup. 


BD0AE  MOtTLD. 


DBAJNING  POT 


MOULD  AND  POT. 


CORRESPONDENCE.  281 

LETTER  PROM  LOUIS  VILMORIN. 

Translation.]  PARIS,  April  20,  1857. 

TO  M.  .&LEXANDRE  VATTEMAKE. 

SIR, — The  crystallization  of  the  sugar  of  the  sorghum,  it  seems, 
should  be  easily  obtained  in  all  cases  where  the  cane  can  be  sufficiently 
ripened  ;  and  as  the  proportion  of  the  sugar  is  an  unfailing  index  of 
ripeness,  it  follows  that  we  could  always  be  sure  of  obtaining  a  good 
crystallization  of  juices  whose  density  exceeds  1-075,  while  weaker 
ones  would  not  yield  satisfactory  results  after  concentration.  I 
attribute  this  peculiarity  to  the  fact  that  the  sugar  is  preceded  in  the 
juice  by  a  gummy  principle,  which  seems  to  be  transformed  at  a  late 
date,  for  its  proportion  diminishes  in  exact  correspondence  with  the 
increase  of  the  sugar.  The  uncrystallizable  sugar,  or  glucose,  under- 
goes the  same  changes ;  that  is  to  say,  it  is  more  abundant  before 
than  after  the  complete  maturity,  but  its  action  seems  less  prejudicial 
to  the  progress  of  crystallization.  The  gummy  principle  obstructs  it 
in  two  ways ;  for,  beside  being  a  serious  obstacle  to  the  commence- 
ment of  crystallization,  it  afterwards  renders  it  almost  a  matter  of 
impossibility  to  purge  the  crystals  if  obtained.  However,  as  I 
observed,  this  difficulty  only  presents  itself  in  the  employ  of  unripe 
canes  ;  for,  as  soon  as  the  juices  acquire  a  density  of  1-080  and  more, 
they  contain  but  little  else  than  crystallizable  sugar,  and  their  treatment 
presents  no  difficulty.  The  lime  employed,  even  to  a  slight  excess,  is 
not  detrimental,  it  seems  to  me,  in  practice,  as  theory  would  perhaps 
indicate.  Perhaps  a  slight  fermentation,  which  is  inevitable,  may 
disengage  enough  carbonic  acid  to  destroy  the  uncrystallizable  com- 
pound formed  by  its  union  with  the  sugar.  The  fact  is,  that  the  best 
crystallizations  obtained  have  been  had  in  those  experiments  in  which 
I  feared  to  have  used  too  much  lime.  I  should  remark  that  heretofore 
my  operations  have  been  but  on  a  small  scale,  and  it  is  necessary  to 
be  very  prudent  before  applying  the  experiments  of  the  laboratory  to 
practical  operations ;  but  at  all  events,  it  seems  to  me,  after  all  these 
trials,  that  the  crystallization  will  not  meet  with  serious  obstacles  where* 
ever  the  plant  attains  a  complete  maturity. 

(Signed)  VILMORIN. 


282  APPENDIX. 

CHEMICAL  RESEARCHES  ON  THE  SORGHO  SUCRE. 

BY   C.    T.   JACKSON,   M.  D.,   OF   BOSTON,   MASSACHUSETTS. 

ON  the  29th  of  October,  1856, 1  received  from  the  Patent  Office  a 
bottle  of  expressed  juice  of  the  Sorghum  saccharutum,  procured  from 
plants  raised  upon  the  govern  ment  grounds  in  Washington.  This 
juice,  after  being  strained  through  fine  linen,  had  a  specific  gravity  of 
1-062  ;  and,  after  boiling  and  the  separation  of  an  albuminous  scum, 
1'055.  Three  and  a  half  fluid  ounces  of  the  strained  juice,  evaporated 
at  212°  F.,  until  it  became  a  dense  straw-yellow  syrup,  too  thick  to 
run,  when  cold  gave  217  grains  of  saccharine  matter.  That  portion 
of  the  juice  which  had  been  freed  from  albuminous  matter  and  filtered 
through  paper,  gave,  on  evaporation  of  a  fluid  ounce,  78  grains  of 
thick  yellow  syrup,  which,  being  dissolved  in  absolute  alcohol,  left  9 
per  cent,  of  mucilaginous  substances  containing  starch.  The  alcohol 
took  up  69  grains  of  saccharine  matter.  This  is  equal  to  14-36  per 
cent,  on  the  juice. 

Other  portions  of  the  juice  were  operated  upon  by  lime  water  and 
bone  black,  and  filtered  and  evaporated  to  syrup.  A  small  proportion 
of  crystallized  sugar  was  obtained  from  the  bottom  of  the  vessel,  in 
which  the  syrup  had  stood  for  some  days.  A  part  of  the  juice, 
diluted  with  warm  water,  with  the  addition  of  a  little  yeast,  fermented 
and  produced  spirit,  which,  on  being  separated  by  distillation,  was 
found  to  be  an  agreeably  flavored  alcohol,  having,  as  M.  Vihnorin  has 
stated,  a  slight  noyau  taste.  Good  judges  declared  that  it  would 
make  excellent  brandy  spirit.  According  to  the  experiments  of  Vil- 
morin,  the  amount  of  absolute  alcohol  obtained  from  the  juice  is  a 
fraction  over  6  per  cent. 

On  the  3d  of  November  I  also  received  from  the  Patent  Office  two 
parcels  of  the  sorghum  plant,  in  different  stages  of  ripeness.  That 
with  quite  ripe  seeds  was  by  far  the  sweetest ;  while  the  green  one, 
which  was  just  in  flower,  contained  but  very  little  saccharine  matter. 
One  thousand  grains,  taken  from  the  middle  of  the  ripe  stalk,  when 
peeled,  gave  670  grains  of  pith,  from  which  the  juice  was  separated 


CHEMICAL   KESKARCHEti.  283 

The  latter,  on  being  evaporated  to  a  thick  syrup,  gave  90  grains  of 
saccharine  matter,  or  9  per  cent,  on  the  weight  of  the  stalk.  Another 
sample  gave  from  2J  ounces  of  the  pith,  217  grains  of  thick  syrup,  or 
12  per  cent.  Thus  we  have  from  180  to  240  pounds  of  saccharine 
matter,  in  the  form  of  a  dense  syrup,  to  a  ton  (2,000  pounds)  of  the 
stalks.  By  means  of  a  screw  press,  I  separated  the  juice  from  some 
of  the  canes,  which  had  a  specific  gravity  of  1-0987. 

Being  desirous  of  ascertaining  the  saccharine  value  of  the  sorghum 
raised  in  Massachusetts,  I  obtained  from  Capt.  R.  A.  Wainwright,  of 
the  United  States  Arsenal,  at  Watertown,  in  this  state,  five  plants, 
which  had  been  cultivated  on  the  arsenal  grounds.  Sixteen  ounces  of 
one  of  these  plants,  nearly  ripe,  gave  94  ounces  of  clear  pith,  which  I 
exhausted  of  its  saccharine  matter  by  means  of  boiling,  distilled  water, 
and  pressure.  This  liquid,  on  evaporation,  gave  742  grains  of  thick 
syrup,  too  dense  to  pour  from  the  vessel  when  cold.  The  yield  of 
saccharine  matter  in  this  case  was  10f  per  cent. 

Another  and  riper  sample,  from  the  same  parcel,  yielded  from  1,000 
grains  of  the  stalk  640  grains  of  pith,  and  146  grains  of  thick  syrup, 
or  14|  per  cent,  of  saccharine  matter.  On  expression,  the  plant 
yielded  a  clear,  sweet  juice,  having  a  specific  gravity  of  1-0975. 

Analysis  of  the  Bagasse. — One  hundred  grains,  dried  at  212°  F.  and 
burned  in  a  platinum  vessel,  left  1§  per  cent,  of  gray  ashes.  Having 
thus  determined  the  proportion  of  inorganic  matter  in  the  bagasse,  I 
burned  a  larger  quantity  for  further  experiment.  It  was  found  that 
the  ash  consisted  of  the  following  ingredients : 

Per  cent 

Silicic  acid -    14-40 

Phosphoric  acid 13-42 

Sulphuric  acid         -  -    28-70 

Chlorine 3-70 

Potash 8-10 

Soda 9-60 

Lime -  11-80 

Magnesia g-80 

Traces  of  oxyd  of  iron,  a  little  carbonic  acid,  and  loss      0-68 

100-00 


28-i  APPENDIX. 

MONOGRAPH  OF   THE  CHINESE  SUGAR  CANE, 
CALLED  THE  SUGAR  SORGHO. 

BY    DOCTOR   ADRIEN    SICAKD, 

Secretary  of  the  Marseilles  Horticultural   Society,   Member  of  the    Imperial 
Acclimation  Society,  etc.,  etc.    Marseilles,  1856. 

CHAPTER  V. 

Studies  in  the  Structure  and  Intimate  Composition  of  the  Chinese 
Sugar  Cane. 

LET  us  take  a  joint  of  the  cane,  deprived  of  the  clasping  part  of 
the  leaf,  designated  by  the  name  petiole  or  footstalk,  and  let  us  study 
it  from  exterior  to  the  interior. 

Immediately  beneath  the  footstalk  we  find  a  deposit  of  cerosie. 
which  completely  covers  the  epidermis  of  the  cane.  This  deposit, 
which  is  but  slightly  apparent  midway  between  the  knots,  under  the 
footstalks  is  considerable  enough,  on  the  contrary,  from  its  being  pro- 
tected from  the  contact  with  the  air.  Some  canes  will  even  manifest 
this  same  substance  on  their  leaves.  This  is  called  cerosie  because  of 
its  resemblance  to  wax  (cire.) 

The  cerosie  being  passed,  we  come  to  the  epidermis,  or  outside  coat ; 
this  is  thin,  very  strong,  tinted  usually  with  colors  of  straw  color, 
yellow,  apple  green,  and  rose  color,  passing  into  a  violet  when  the  cane 
is  too  ripe.  If  a  piece  of  this  epidermis  be  magnified  to  five  hundred 
diameters,  it  appears  to  the  eye  like  the  bark  of  the  elm  as  seen  in 
nature  by  the  naked  eye,  especially  if  the  examination  be  made  on  the 
portion  covered  with  cerosie.  If  the  fragment  of  epidermis  be  turned 
so  as  to  present  the  interior  face,  there  will  be  seen  angular  protuber- 
ances, which  correspond  with  the  joints  of  the  cells,  and  filaments 
running  in  a  direction  from  above  to  below,  or  from  knot  to  knot,  of 
the  stalk.  Whatever  pains  be  taken  to  separate  the  epidermis  of  the 
cane,  some  fragments  of  cells  will  always  be  seen  adherent. 

I  submitted  the  epidermis  to  the  action  of  pure  sulphuric  acid*  ; 

*  All  my  studies  of  organic  chemistry  with  the  view  of  discovering  the  intimat* 
structure  of  the  Chinese  Sugar  Cane  have  been  made  under  the  microscope. 


CHEMICAL  COMPOSITION  285 

it  assumed  in  this  liquid  a  deep  yellowish  color,  and  the  appearance  of 
the  very  rough  bark  of  a  tree,  marked  with  black  spots  and  streaks. 
By  the  addition  of  a  drop  of  anhydrous  alcohol,  there  was  immediately 
formed,  in  the  liquid,  a  movement  of  oscillation ;  the  fragment  of 
epidermis  was  borne  by  the  current  in  the  liquid  from  left  to  right. 
At  the  end  of  some  minutes  the  yellow  color  had  entirely  disappeared, 
but  the  piece  preserved  the  original  appearance.  Submitted,  then, 
to  the  action  of  tincture  of  iodine,  the  epidermis  preserved  its  trans- 
parency ;  except  that  the  more  deeply  tinted  parts  assumed  a  very 
light  blue  color,  surrounding  plates  and  cells  which  were  completely 
white.  At  a  magnitude  of  one  hundred  diameters  the  objects  of  our 
previous  study  can  be  seen,  but  in  this  case  the  piece  of  epidermis 
looks  like  the  bark  of  the  plane  tree. 

It  is  difficult,  at  this  magnitude,  to  recognize  the  details  abova 
mentioned  ;  still  with  a  great  experience  in  microscopic  study  it  may 
be  done. 

If  the  piece  of  epidermis  belongs  to  a  cane  long  time  previously 
ripened,  or  the  experiments  be  made  with  the  knots  nearest  the  ground, 
it  will  be  found  that  the  cerosie  always  will  adhere  to  the  epidermis, 
even  though  it  may  have  been  scraped  to  remove  the  former ;  the  ad- 
dition of  sulphuric  acid  can  determine  the  yellow  color ;  but  anhydrous 
spirit  of  wine  subsequently  added,  does  not  produce  so  strong  a  sudden 
oscillatory  movement  as  in  the  former  experiment.  The  decoloration 
of  the  tissues  does  not  take  place ;  they  always  preserve  the  yellow 
color,  and  the  disposition  of  the  fibers  is  the  same,  except  that  the 
most  prominent  tubes  are  particularly  distinct.  The  tincture  of  iodine 
added  to  the  solution  does  not  give  any  color  changes,  except  that  the 
deep  color  of  the  epidermis  becomes  clearer.  Some  fragments  of  cells 
are  visible. 

The  epidermis  is  now  removed.  We  next  come  to  the  dermis,  or 
inner  coating.*  Submitted  to  a  glass  of  five  hundred  diameters,  it  pre- 
sents an  assemblage  of  tubes  all  disposed  side  by  side  in  manner  accord- 
ing to  the  height  of  the  plant.  Submitted  to  the  action  of  pure 
sulphuric  acid,  the  deep  color  soon  passes  into  a  red  brown ;  numerous 

*  This  piece  of  derma  was  taken  from  the  last  joint  of  a  cane  of  large  size,  and  it  had 
remained  on  the  stalk  after  its  ripening. 


286  Al'PEXMX. 

cells  of  rounded  form  show  themselves  under  the  tubes.  The  addition 
of  anhydrous  alcohol  causes  a  very  slight  movement  of  oscillation  ;  the 
yellowish-red-brown  color  brightens  up  and  becomes  yellow  ;  but  the 
longitudinal  tubes  are  perfectly  apparent,  and  upon  these  are  seen  at 
intervals  rounded  cells.  These  cells  are  unequal,  and  of  three  dimen- 
sions ;  large,  medium  sized,  and  small.  In  the  liquid  are  seen  floating 
perfectly  white  crystals. 

The  addition  of  the  tincture  of  iodine  produces,  in  time,  in  certain 
portions  of  the  tubes,  a  slightly  violet  hue ;  but  the  little  cells  have 
become  colored  a  deep  violet.  As  to  the  crystals,  of  which  we  have 
previously  spoken,  they  preserve  all  their  whiteness. 

Let  us  continue  our  researches.  The  epidermis  and  dermis  have 
been  removed.  We  next  find  between  the  knots  long  threads  of  a 
yellowish  color,  running  from  one  knot  to  the  other,  and  which  may 
be  easily  removed  by  hand  :  they  are  united  together  by  a  kind  of  pith 
A  specimen  of  these  threads  was  submitted  to  the  microscope,  (magni 
fied  to  one  hundred  diameters,)  and  despite  all  my  efforts,  it  was  im- 
possible to  completely  deprive  it  of  its  covering  of  pith.  Under  the 
glass  the  appearance  it  presented  was  that  of  a  magnificent  column  of 
stalactite  of  the  most  beautiful  whiteness.  Sulphuric  acid  colors  this 
part  of  the  plant  yellow  on  the  edges,  and  reddish  brown  throughout 
the  rest  of  its  surface  ;  a  continuance  of  about  a  quarter  of  an  hour  in 
the  liquid  produces  the  disaggregation  of  little  grains  almost  white,  but 
bordered  with  a  more  roseate  hue. 

The  addition  of  anhydrous  alcohol  produces  the  complete  decolora- 
tion of  the  portion  formed  by  the  separation  of  the  small  grains  above 
mentioned ;  they  may  be  distinguished  perfectly  isolated  from  each 
other,  and  preserving  by  their  arrangement  the  form  of  the-bark  of  a 
tree,  or,  rather,  of  a  lace  of  dazzling  whiteness.  As  to  the  portion 
which  has  not  been  detached,  it  preserve^  its  original  form  and  color. 

The  addition  of  a  strong  proportion  of  tincture  of  iodine  has  not 
changed  the  color  of  the  grains  of  which  we  have  spoken ;  only  the 
liquid  in  which  they  are  held,  becomes  strongly  tinted  yellow ;  the 
surface  seems  to  have  assumed  a  slightly  bluish  tint.  As  to  the  cells, 
and  the  portion  of  the  specimen  which  was  not  separated,  they  have 
taken  on  a  bluish  violet.  Besides  this,  there  is  seen  the  yellow  color 
in  portions  of  the  cell  not  changed  to  blue. 


CHEMICAL   COMPOSITION.  287 

If  we  remove  with  great  care,  by  means  of  a  piece  of  silk  paper,* 
the  liquids  in  which  we  steeped  the  piece  of  sugar-cane  used  in  our 
experiments,  and  if  we  replace  it  by  water,  suffering  the  piece  of  cane 
to  steep  for  some  minutes,  we  remark  that  the  tissues  become  more 
transparent ;  but  the  violet  color  always  remains  in  the  thicker  por- 
tions, especially  in  the  cells.  These  have  a  hole  in  their  center. 

If  we  deprive  of  water  f  the  specimen  of  Chinese  Sugar  Cane  under- 
going experiment,  and  replace  this  water  by  anhydrous  alcohol,  we 
observe  a  decoloration  of  the  tissues  and  the  separation  of  the  portion 
which  had  formed  the  lace  ;  this  detaches  itself  from  the  piece,  lets 
escape  a  large  number  of  entirely  colorless  crystals,  and  ends  by  taking 
on  the  appearance  of  a  hempen  thread,  which  should  be  placed  in  the 
field  of  the  microscope  and  examined  at  the  magnitude  which  was  em- 
ployed by  us  at  the  commencement.  We  shall  find,  floating  in  the 
liquid,  some  violet  cells,  which  have  preserved  their  rounded  form.  As 
to  the  piece  which  did  not  dissolve,  it  maintains  the  appearance  indi- 
cated in  the  preceding  experiments. 

Another  piece  of  filament,  taken  from  the  same  place,  and  submitted 
to  the  same  magnifying  power  of  five  hundred  diameters,  has  seemed 
to  us  organized  ;  it  represents  a  fragment  of  hemp,  with  the  exception 
that  the  latter  is  white  throughout  the  greater  part  of  its  length. 
Submitted  to  the  action  of  pure  sulphuric  acid  for  about  an  hour,  we 
observe  the  separation  of  the  cells  ;  the  filaments  take  the  appearance 
of  threads  of  hemp  seen  by  the  naked  eye,  and  placed  beside  each 
other  we  observe  some  disaggregated  cells ;  the  filaments  have  a  black 
color. 

No  change  caused  by  the  addition  of  anhydrous  alcohol.  The  tinc- 
ture of  iodine  added  to  the  mixture,  makes  to  appear  slight  violet  or 
bluish  spots.  The  general  tint  is  observed  to  be  diminished  in  inten- 
sity. The  entire  liquid  is  sprinkled  with  white  crystals.* 

The  specimen  which  we  are  about  to  study  is  taken  from  the  center 
of  the  cane.  We  were  at  pains  to  separate  it  entirely  from  the  threads 
which  we  have  just  dissected  ;  it  presents  to  the  naked  eye  the  appear- 

*  It  will  readily  be  conceived  that  it  is  impossible  to  accomplish  the  entire  removal 
of  all  foreign  matter. 

t  We  cannot  «AV  but  that  a  little  water  has  actually  remained  after  all  our  precau- 
tions. 


288  APPENDIX. 

ance  of  elder  pith,  except  that  on  pressure  it  permits  to  escape  a  very 
sweet  juice. 

Under  the  microscope,  at  a  magnitude  of  one  hundred  diameters,  the 
specimen  which  is  the  object  of  our  study  resembles  a  grain  of  sugar 
seen  with  the  naked  eye,  and  of  which  the  appearance  is  of  a  brilliant 
whiteness  ;  the  crystallization  is  like  that  of  the  most  beautiful  sugar. 
"We  remark  on  the  edges  a  whitish  liquid  which  oozes  from  it ;  in  it 
we  see  some  small  cells,  which  are  doubtless  those  which  have  permit- 
ted to  escape  the  liquid  which  we  have  just  noticed. 

Some  moments'  rest  in  pure  sulphuric  acid  changes  the  appearance 
of  the  specimen  which  we  study  ;  the  edges  are  yellow,  the  center  rep- 
resents a  bunch  of  grapes,  of  which  the  grains  are  peri'ectly  distinct, 
and  of  a  violet  red  color  ;  some  grains  separated  from  the  bunch  have 
an  appearance  identical  to  those  which  we  have  observed  in  the  pre- 
ceding experiments,  except  their  violet  red  color  ;  they  are  all  perfo- 
rated with  a  hole  in  the  middle.  Some  crystals  are  seen  in  the 
liquid. 

Anhydrous  alcohol,  added  in  the  segment  of  sphere,  produces  a 
slight  movement  of  oscillation  from  right  to  left ;  the  violet  red  color 
is  unaltered ;  the  edges  only  have  assumed  a  tint  much  less  yellow,  and 
which  has  a  tendency  to  disappear.  As  to  the  crystals  disseminated 
throughout  the  liquid,  they  are  always  incolorous. 

The  addition  of  the  tincture  of  iodine  gives,  after  a  contact  of  some 
minutes,  a  color  less  deep  ;  one  would  say  that  in  place  of  coloring  the 
substance,  the  iodine  had,  on  the  contrary,  lightened  it.  However,  by 
regarding  it  with  the  greatest  attention,  we  distinguish  little  veins  of 
an  infinitesimal  dimension,  which  appear  colored  violet. 

The  piece  of  Chinese  Sugar  Cane  submitted  to  the  above  experi- 
ments, was  now  taken  from  the  liquid,  then  placed  in  the  segment  of 
a  sphere,  with'  anhydrous  alcohol  that  we  had  increased  with  water. 
A  portion  of  the  fragment  was  dissolved  ;  at  the  bottom  of  the  liquid 
we  see  a  great  quantity  of  white  crystals.  As  to  the  mass  itself,  it  is 
found  at  the  bottom  of  the  liquid,  and  presents  the  appearance  of  a 
mixture  of  empty  cells,  of  crystals  and  granules,  the  whole  seeming 
white  by  refraction,  and  tinted  violet  by  reflection. 

A  fragment  imperceptible  to  the  naked  eye,  submitted  to  a  magni- 
tude of  five  hundred  diameters,  is  completely  identical  with  crystals  of 


CHEMICAL   COMPOSITION.  289 

sugar  in  the  perfect  state  ;  they  are  surrounded  by  an  mcolorous  liquid. 
This  fragment  has  stripes  very  light  and  blackish  in  color. 

Pure  sulphuric  acid  has  entirely  changed  the  appearance  of  the 
fragment  which  we  are  studying  ;  it  has  taken  a  blackish  color  in  the 
surface  of  the  crystals,  which  have  become  more  deep. 

Anhydrous  alcohol,  added  to  the  mixture,  seems  to  dissect  the  crys- 
tals. 

An  addition  of  tincture  of  iodine  lessens  the  coloring.  By  refrac- 
tion, the  crystals  are  completely  white. 

We  have  taken  at  the  center  of  a  knot,  a  portion  of  the  substance 
which  it  contains,  seeking  to  separate,  as  much  as  possible,  from  it  the 
filaments  which,  in  this  plant,  run  from  the  ground  to  the  top  of  the 
stalk,  bending,  it  must  be  remarked,  at  each  knot.  It  is,  so  to  speak, 
compressed,  and  in  the  experiments  which  I  have  made  on  these  threads, 
they  have  always  broken  at  this  part. 

The  portion  above  mentioned  was  placed  under  the  microscope.  At 
a  magnitude  of  one  hundred  diameters,  it  resembled  a  piece  of  certain 
plants  seen  with  the  naked  eye.  Placed  in  concentrated  sulphuric 
acid,  the  specimen  becomes  broken  apart,  and  takes  on  a  black  color, 
bordered  by  a  reddish  tint.  The  cells  are  apparent,  someof  them  sep- 
arated. Anhydrous  alcohol  produces  no  other  effect  than  to  detach 
some  flakes  of  cells,  and  some  rare  white  crystals,  the  whole  floating 
on  the  liquid. 

We  then  took  a  portion  of  the  knot  which  had  served  us  for  the 
above  experiments,  and  placed  it  in  water,  but  its  appearance  did 
not  change  from  that  of  woody  fiber,  corroded  by  sulphuric  acid. 

A  portion  of  knot  which  we  endeavored  to  completely  isolate  from 
the  filaments,  was  magnified  to  five  hundred  diameters.  Placed  in 
contact  with  sulphuric  acid,  it  was  disorganized,  numerous  cells  made 
their  appearance,  and  the  whole  was  colored  black,  mixed  with  deep 
yellow ;  the  addition  of  anhydrous  alcohol  has  made  apparent  to  us 
woody  fiber,  in  the  condition  in  which  it  is  when  it  has  been  in  contact 
with  sulphuric  acid. 

From  the  experiments  which  we  have  thus  made,  it  follows  : 

That  the  Chinese  Sugar  Cane  is  composed  from  outside  inwards, 
first  of  a  layer  of  cerosie  or  wax,  and  an  inert  epidermis.  The  dermin 
contains  gums,  filaments,  fecula,  and  some  portions  of  sugar. 

13 


290  APPENDIX. 

The  interior  part  of  the  cane  is  composed,  in  very  great  proportion, 
of  sugar  and  filaments.  It  is  in  the  most  central  portion  of  all  that 
are  found  the  sacchariferous  products. 

If  the  cane  be  deprived  of  its  epidermis  and  dermis,  it  will  be  placed 
in  the  best  condition  possible  to  furnish  sugar  of  good  quality,  and  of 
easy  extraction.  Such,  at  least,  is  our  opinion,  which  is  based  upon 
the  practical  studies  which  we  have  made  with  this  precious  gramine- 
ous plant. 


FROM  F.  BOURDAIS,  DISTILLER,  AT  CONSTANTINE, 
ALGIERS. 

BUT  however  great  seem  the  probable  results  of  the  introduction  of 
the  sorgho  into  France,  and  however  great  the  enthusiasm  which  has 
arisen  in  the  minds  of  its  cultivators,  they  still  look  upon  the  new 
colony  of  Algiers  as  the  country  in  which,  both  on  account  of  climate, 
soil  and  the  peculiar  adaptedness  of  the  plant,  the  most  remarkable 
results  can  be  obtained.  There,  it  will  be  recollected,  that  M. 
Hardy,  the  chief  of  the  government  nursery,  at  Hamma,  in  his  report 
to  Marshal  Yaillaint,  certifies  to  having  allowed  his  canes  to  stand  upon 
the  ground  where  they  grew,  first  having  removed  the  tufts  and  leaves, 
throughout  the  whole  winter,  the  climate  being  so  very  mild.  The 
immense  importance  of  such  an  aid  to  the  manufacture  will  be  seen 
on  a  moment's  reflection,  for  he  may  pursue  his  manufacture  throughout 
the  whole  year  without  interruption,  and  thus  not  be  obliged  to  greatly 
increase  his  expenditures  for  labor  and  considerable  machinery  to 
harvest  and  work  up  his  crop  in  the  short  space  of  time  which  is 
absolutely  required  by  the  changes  of  the  American  climate. 

M.  Bourdais,  a  large  distiller  at  Constantiue,  in  the  province  of 
Algiers,  has  written  a  pamphlet  called,  "  Guide  to  the  Distiller  of  the 
Sorgho  Sucre,"  in  which  he  gives  the  result  of  his  extended  experi- 
ments. He  seems  to  have  been  a  careful  experimenter,  and  his  book  is 
entirely  practical ;  indeed,  he  says  himself,  "  All  the  eloquence  of  our 
writings,  rests  upon  the  figures  offered."  We  quote  his  language,  as 
follows  : 


H.   BOURDAIS'   STATEMENT.  291 

My  first  experiments  were  most  satisfactory,  and  I  should  not  hesi- 
tate a  single  moment  to  pursue  with  new  zeal,  in  consideration  of  the 
initiative  taken  by  M.  Hardy,  and  with  the  appearance  of  a  new  plant 
capable  of  giving  in  alcoholic  products  according  to  the  figure  of  this 
philosophic  experimenter,  a  net  profit  of  about  $1,662  64.  Let  us  re- 
mark in  passing,  that  Messrs.  Madinier  &  Lacoste,  in  the  new  pamphlet 
which  they  have  just  published,  under  the  title  of  "  Guide  to  the  Cnlti- 
vator  of  the  Sorgho,"  carry  this  figure  as  high  as  9241  fr.  Let  us  re- 
mark the  enormous  discrepancy  between  these  two  computations, 
amounting  to  $185  30. 

"  By  taking  this  figure  of  9241  fr.  as  a  basis,  it  is  evident  that  a 
planter  should,  with  a  capital  of  $20,000,  distil  in  six  or  seven  months, 
the  product  of  fifty  acres,  and  realize  thus  the  enormous  profit  of 
$37,000.  Twelve  acres  were  quickly  planted  by  me.  Agreements 
with  other  persons  permitted  me  likewise  to  count  upon  the  yield  of  other 
estates  upon  which  the  sorgho  culture  had  been  undertaken.  One  may 
judge  exactly  by  the  following  figures  what  are  the  results.  The  calcu- 
lation has  been  made  to  a  most  scrupulous  exactitude : 

COST  OF  CULTIVATING  ONE  HECTARE  (ABOUT  2£  ACRES). 

1.  CULTIVATION 

Plowing,      -  -    $16 

Hoeing,  8 

Making  irrigation  furrows,                                       *  .4 

Sowing,  9 

Watering,    -                                     •  -      10 

Manures,            .....  20 

Hoeing,  and  subsequent  cost  of  cultivation,  -      20 

"$87 
2.  FIRST  COST  OF  MANUFACTURE. 

Cutting  the  canes  at  maturity,        -  -    $14 

Stripping  the  leaves  (done  by  Arab  children,  at  1  fr,  per  day)  28 
Transportation  of  the  canes  to  the  manufactory,      -  -        8 

"$50 
$137 


292  APPENDIX. 

By  following  successive  weighings,  made  with  conscientious  exact, 
ness,  I  learned  the  fact  that  1\  acres  well  managed,  with  the  desirable 
conditions  of  good  culture,  yields 

1,520  metrical  quintals  of  canes,  deprived  of  their  leaves. 

278         "  "  green  leaves,  very  excellent. 

For  the  nourishment  of  stock,  and  representing,  at  sixty 

cents  the  250  Ibs.,  a  sum  total  of  $47 

Adopting,  as  a  starting  point,  the  first  cost  of  culture  and 

manufacture,  the  result  above  given  would  be      -  137 

My  expenses  were  thus  reduced  by  -        47 

Giving  $90 

I  had  already  a  sure  basis.  Ninety  dollars  was  my  entire  expense 
for  the  product  of  520  quintals  of  cane.  I  obtained  the  sum  of  84  c. 
as  a  representative  value  for  the  production  per  metrical  quintal.  I 
will  detail  in  another  place  the  different  operations  which  preceded  the 
distillation.  It  will  be  sufficient  to  say  that  a  metrical  quintal  of  canes 
yielded,  on  distillation,  5-2  quarts  of  alcohol  at  94°,  being  0.15.1  of 
raw  material  for  a  quart  of  alcohol  at  94°. 
Thus,  then 

The  cost  of  raw  material  being,          -  $0  03 

The  cost  of  crushing,  maceration  of  the  bagasse  and  of  the 
seeds,  fermentation,  yeast  of  beer,  distillation,  rectifica- 
tion, about,  -  -  0  10 
Cutting  and  transporting  to  the  still,  0  02 

I  obtain,  as  the  cost  at  Constantine,  for  the  3|6*  reduced 

to  94o,    -  $0  15 

This  will,  doubtless  appear  a  high  price,  but  taking  into  considera- 
tion the  extravagant  price  for  manual  labor  in  the  province  of  Con- 
stantine, the  explanation  will  be  sufficient.  In  fact,  a  workman  em- 
ployed either  on  the  farm  or  in  the  distillery  does  not  have  less  wages 
than  seventy  to  eighty  cents  per  day,  for  ten  hours'  work.  I  have  been 

*  A  technical  expression,  used  in  France  to  signify  a  certain  strength  of  alcoholic 
liquors.  It  cannot  be  translated. 


M.   BOUBDAIS'    STATEMENT.  293 

compelled  to  raise  the  salary  of  the  chief  distiller  to  $1  60  a  day,  which 
iii  France  is  not  higher  than  $1 .  It  is  the  same  with  respect  to  the  fire- 
man, whose  wages  here  are  forty  cents  higher  than  they  are  in  France. 
The  English  bituminous  coal  which  I  use  costs  me  at  the  distillery  about 
$1  75  per  250  Ibs.  It  will  be  urged,  doubtless,  that  the  native  labor 
would  be  less  costly.  The  objection  would  be  a  valid  one,  if  it  were 
possible  to  employ  the  Arabs  in  any  other  department  than  that  of 
manual  labor.  At  a  later  day,  when  the  culture  of  the  sorgho  has 
become  much  more  extended,  and  when  they  have  become  familiar  with 
it,  we  may  possibly  find  among  them  those  who  would  be  able  to  fill 
the  more  important  places. 

I  have  shown  that  about  a  quart  of  "  3j  6  "  reduced,  costs  me  for 
hand  labor  about  ten  cents.  This  price  may  appear  a  high  one,  but  it 
is  not  very  remarkable.  I  will  show  by  the  following  figures  that  a 
very  large  profit  can  be  realized  from  it  in  the  Algiers  market,  because 
of  the  economy  of  transportation  and  other  expenses.  This  economy 
is  not  less  than  40J  cents.  Let  us  calculate  upon  the  exportation  of 
a  pipe  of  3|G  of  about  150  gallons,  to  France,  at  sixty  cents  per  gallon, 
supposing  it  put  in  the  hands  of  a  commission  merchant  in  Marseilles. 
We  will  have,  firstly,  then,  to  deduct  for  commission,  3  per 

cent,, -        -        -    $6  48 

Storage,  carting,  guaging,  etc., 1  20 

Insurance,         -        -        -        -        -        -        -        -        -108 

Freight  by  steam  vessels, 3  80 

Commission  for  transportation  to  Phillippeville,  and  various 

expenses,  -        -        -        -        -        -        -        -        -120 

Leakage,  and  other  accidents  of  the  journey,  10  litres,  at 

$1  80, 3  62 

Transportation,  Phillippeville  to  Constantine,  at  $2  50  per 

50  gallons, 9  20 


$26  58 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  expenses  for  an  order  of  150  gallons  are 
very  rapidly  increased,  before  the  merchandise  can  be  put  into  the 
storehouse,  to  the  enormous  figure  of  $24  54,  about  16  cents  per  gallon, 
which  would  be  an  entire  profit  if  sold  in  the  interior  of  Algeria. 


294  APPENDIX. 

In  fact,  the  net  price,  which  we  know  to  have  been  fifteen  cents,  is 
reduced  four,  and  then  stands  at  eleven  cents. 

For  the  same  reason  the  price  of  hand  labor  is  reduced  to  about 
seven  cents. 

It  will  be  remarked  that  I  have  abstained  from  speaking  of  the  seed 
of  the  sorgho,  when  detailing  above  the  productions  of  this  grain.  I 
have  made  the  best  employment  of  this  seed -the  object  of  a  special 
study,  and  I  believe  that  I  have  discovered  its  most  profitable  use, 
taking  all  things  into  consideration.  It  seems  to  me  an  undoubted 
fact,  that  there  is  a  large  profit  from  changing  into  sugar  the  starch  con- 
tained in  the  seed  of  the  sorgho,  by  submitting  it  to  a  vigorous  and 
warm  maceration,  along  with  the  canes. 

I  previously  said,  that  a  metrical  quintal  of  canes  yielded  me  on  dis- 
tillation about  five  quarts  of  alcohol  at  94°. 

In  this  was  included  the  juices  expressed  from  the  seed  of  the  sorgho 
by  means  of  maceration. 

I  have  passed  without  notice  the  so-called  product  to  be  obtained 
from  the  bagasse,  because,  like  the  seed,  I  submit  them  to  the  same 
maceration,  in  order  to  extract  from  them  all  the  saccharine  matter 
which  has  escaped  the  action  of  the  cylinder.  I  find  a  further  profit 
in  this,  since  the  bagasse,  deprived  of  all  its  nutritive  matter,  after  the 
completion  of  the  process  of  maceration,  should  not  be  eaten  by  stock, 
as  I  have  proved  in  my  experience.  As  to  a  second  crop  being  able 
to  give  an  additional  amount  of  alcoholic  products,  it  seems  to  me 
little  probable.  We  may  count  certainly  upon  a  second  crop,  which 
can  give  a  large  quantity  of  forage  to  be  cut  up  and  eaten. 

All  the  writers  who  have  discussed  the  sorgho  sucre,  have  also  men- 
tioned as  one  item  of  production,  the  cerosie,  which  covers  the  stalks  of 
the  cane.  To  my  mind  it  is  not  worth  while  to  engage  in  an  opera- 
tion so  costly  by  itself,  when  the  profits  resulting  from  it  are  very 
problematical. 

The  computations  I  have  given  are  the  results  of  distillation  under- 
taken with  about  twelve  acres  of  crops  made  on  alluvial  soils,  or  river 
bottoms,  which  can  be  irrigated  at  high  water,  and  naturally  manured 
by  the  detritus  of  the  old  swamp,  where  my  distillery  has  been  located 
for  a  number  of  years. 

The  truly  surprising  results  which  I  have  obtained,  have  been  ad- 


M.   BOUEDAIS'    STATEMENT.  295 

mired  by  the  Director  of  the  Government  Nursery  of  Algiers,  on  the 
occasion  of  a  visit  which  he  was  good  enough  to  accord  me.  He  has 
frequently  noticed  the  existence  on  my  place,  of  hills  of  sorgho,  tiller- 
ing from  sixteen  to  eighteen  stalks  of  twelve  feet  in  height,  which 
often  were  five  and  a  half  inches  in  circumference  at  their  base.  In 
other  instances  ten  to  twelve  stalks  have  been  very  commonly  noticed  : 
the  average  is  from  six  to  seven. 

It  is  commonly  known  that  M.  Hardy  is  one  of  the  first  who  has 
occupied  his  time  with  the  culture  of  saccharine  plants,  and  very  espe- 
cially with  the  Chinese  Imphee.  The  intelligent  experiments  which  h * 
has  undertaken,  upon  a  small  scale  it  is  true,  (about  half  an  acre,)  and 
as  he  says  himself,  deprived  of  favorable  conditions,  that  is  to  say,  not 
'  having  at  his  disposition  any  other  instrument  for  distillation  than 
Saleron's  still  retort ;  these  trials,  I  say,  although  not  permitting  him 
to  arrive  at  results  completely  satisfactory,  have  not  however  suffered 
him  to  have  any  doubt  upon  the  future  of  a  culture  which  promises  to 
be  an  inexhaustible  source  of  riches  and  prosperity  for  Algeria. 

Although  it  has  been  necessary  for  me  to  cultivate  my  grounds  at 
great  expense,  (at  first  with  the  pick,  to  eradicate  all  the  stumps  and 
stubble  of  the  old  swamp  ;  afterwards  with  the  plow,  to  bury  as  deeply 
as  possible  by  very  arduous  labor  ;  and  finally  to  make  ditches  and 
drains,  for  the  aeration  of  the  soil,)  the  result  has  amply  repaid  me  for 
all  these  labors  attending  the  first  cultivation.  I  will  now  confinu 
myself  to  the  details  relative  to  the  fabrication  of  the  wines  of  th'j 
sorgho,  to  their  distillation,  and  finally  to  the  rectification  of  the  bran- 
dies which  have  been  obtained  from  it.  I  will  explain  as  clearly  as 
possible  different  methods  I  have  employed  ;  and  I  shall  deem  myself 
happy  if  these  reflections  can  open  the  way  to  other  investigators. 

DETAILS  OF  MANUFACTURE. 

The  canes,  stripped  of  their  leaves,  are  submitted  to  the  energetic 
action  of  a  cylinder,  with  three  rollers  moved  by  steam,  and  making  fifl  y 
revolutions  in  a  minute.  The  vesou,  or  juice,  runs  into  a  vat  of  a  capacity 
of  about  one  thousand  gallons,  placed  under  the  cylinder.  This  firs* 
operation  finished,  the  bagasse  passed  out  of  the  cylinder  contains  still  a 
large  quantity  of  saccharine  matter,  which  can  be  extracted  in  scarcely 


296  APPENDIX. 

any  other  way  than  by  maceration.  This  new  operation  is,  however, 
more  indispensable,  as  the  saccharine  part  remaining  in  the  bagasse 
gives  in  maceration  for  2500  Ibs.  of  these  latter,  500  gallons  of  juice, 
weighing  3°  by  the  areometer  of  Cartier. 

Thus,  then,  260  Ibs.  of  canes  yield,  in  reality,  seventeen  gallons  of 
vesou,  at  a  density  of  10°,  or,  as  we  have  already  said,  five  quarts  of 
alcohol  at  94°,  being  two  gallons  of  alcohol  to  twenty-five  gallons  of 
juice.  But  it  is  impossible  to  obtain  these  results  if  recourse  is  not 
had  to  maceration.  Thus  there  will  be  seen  the  motives  which  have 
induced  me  to  seek  for  the  better  employment  of  the  seed  of  the 


When  I  perceived  that  the  cutting  and  stripping  cost  me  so  much, 
I  caused  to  be  made  in  the  fields  of  the  plants  which  were  growing,  a 
choice  of  the  finest  grain  for  my  sowings  of  the  following  year  ;  and  I 
left  the  panicles  adhering  to  the  stalk.  Of  the  remainder,  the  panicles 
and  leaves  should  be  crushed  in  the  cylinder  and  afterwards  subjected 
to  the  process  of  maceration  with  the  bagasse.  The  action  of  the  warm 
water  determining  immediately  the  transformation  into  sugar  of  the 
starch  contained  in  the  grain,  I  was  able  to  obtain  by  a  single  opera- 
tion the  saccharine  residue  escaped  from  the  cylinder,  and  to  save  thus 
the  cutting  off  the  seed,  stripping,  the  grinding  of  the  grain,  and  the 
trouble  of  the  preparation  of  a  certain  quantity  of  malt  to  assist  in  the 
fermentation.  The  possibility  of  leaving  for  some  time  standing  in  the 
field  the  plants  of  the  sorgho,  has  considerably  assisted  me  in  this  ex- 
periment ;  for,  as  M.  Hardy  judiciously  observes,  the  stalks  of  the 
sorgho  preserve  themselves  not  only  uninjured  for  several  months  after 
their  maturity  upon  the  ground  as  they  grew,  but  even  increase  in  the 
proportion  of  sugar.  I  find  proof  of  that  in  the  specific  weight  of  the 
juice,  which  in  September  last  weighed  9°  and  now  has  increased 
to  10°. 

FERMENTATION. 

The  juice  as  it  passes  out  from  the  vats  from  maceration,  is  enriched 
by  the  addition  of  pure  juice,  and  arrives  in  the  fermenting  vat  with 
a  density  of  5°.  I  have  made  what  is  technically  called  the  "  foot ;" 
that  is  to  say,  by  turning  into  a  vat  200  gallons  of  juice  at  a  tempera- 
ture of  30°;  with  this  5  quarts  of  brewer's  yeast  should  be  mixed  ;  an 


M.   BOURDAIS'   STATEMENT.  297 

hour  afterwards  this  "  foot"  is  in  full  fermentation.  I  then  filled  my 
vat  with  500  hectolitres,  at  a  temperature  of  30°.  An  hour  after  these 
quantities  pass  themselves  into  fermentation.  Let  us  remark  that  this  is 
the  result  of  our  own  experience  ;  that  this  fermentation  progresses 
regularly,  has  no  need  of  being  watched,  is  never  violent,  and  falls 
always  to  zero  of  the  areometer,  in  20  hours  at  least,  and  24  hours  at 
most.  It  is  very  true  that  the  juice  of  the  sorgho  contains  naturally 
its  own  ferment.  M.  Hardy  has  considered  it  sufficient  to  produce 
the  alcoholic  fermentation  without  the  addition  of  any  stimulant ;  and 
in  this  latter  case  this  fermentation  progresses  very  gently,  much 
too  gently  even,  since  it  requires  less  than  6  to  8  days  to  fill ;  and 
finally  it  often  happens  that  it  ceases  before  the  sugar  is  entirely 
transformed.  Then  the  wines  weigh  still  1,  and  sometimes  1|,  by  the 
areometer. 

DISTILLATION. 

I  distil  my  wines  by  steam,  and  by  means  of  a  column  still,  after 
the  system  of  M.  Dubrunfaut. 

RECTIFICATION  OF  BRANDY. 

The  rectifying  column  of  which  I  have  made  use  is  that  of  M. 
Dubrunfaut,  comprising  two  analyzers,  whose  purpose  it  is  to  spread 
the  liquid  of  the  condensation  and  the  vapors,  which  are  obtained 
simultaneously.  The  3|6  obtained  are  of  a  strength  of  94°,  and  fine 
in  flavor.  It  now  only  remains  to  present  a  summary  view  of  the 
figures  which  have  appeared  in  the  foregoing  remarks,  and  to  draw 
the  attention  of  the  reader  to  the  following  conclusions  :  they  speak 
for  themselves,  and  have  no  need  of  comments.  We  have  seen  that 
about  2J  acres  can  produce  58,240  Ibs.  of  stripped  stalks  ;  and  that  a 
hundred"  kilogrammes  (225  Ibs.)  of  these  same  stalks  may  give  about  1  £ 
gallons  of  alcohol  at  940.  The  hectare  (2£  acres)  yields  then  about  700 
gallons  3|6  at  94°,  worth  in  the  Constantine  market  about  $1  50  per 

gallon,  say $1,081  60 

We  know  that  the  litre  of  3|6  costs,  all  expenses  included, 

0.74.1,  say  for  200  gals.  400  73 

There  remains,  per  hectare,  a  net  profit  of  .         .        .  $680  87 

13* 


298  APPENDIX. 

In  the  preceding  calculations  we  have  examined  the  question  of  the 
sorgho  in  all  its  relations,  both  as  to  the  process  for  the  transforma- 
tion of  its  product,  and  the  farm  which  gives  them.  In  a  word,  it  is 
certain  that  an  establishment  thus  constituted  can  distil  in  the  space  of 
six  or  seven  months  a  crop  of  about  50  acres,  and  produce  by  an  ex- 
pense of  $20,000,  (in  which  is  comprised  about  $17,000  fixed  capital, 
represented  by  the  apparatus  and  works,)  a  profit  of  $12,000,  or 
thereabouts.  We  have  said  the  sorgho  not  only  furnishes  to  industry 
a  precious  element ;  but  furthermore,  it  can  profitably  be  employed 
as  a  forage  crop.  One  acre  cultivated  in  sorgho  costs  less  for  culture, 
and  pays  incomparably  more  than  the  best  artificial  meadow.  They 
have  already  comprehended  this  in  the  north  of  France,  as  is  shown 
in  one  of  the  pamphlets  previously  quoted ;  but  in  those  countries 
where  the  sorgho  does  not  ripen,  planters  have  to  overcome  difficulties 
which  do  not  exist  for  us,  and  are  far  from  being  able  to  obtain,  not- 
withstanding all  their  efforts,  results  equivalent  to  those  which  come 
in  this  country  without  other  assistance  than  native  labor. — [From 
"  Guide  du  Distillateur  du  Sorgho  a  Sucre."  F.  Bourdais. 


REPORT  OF  THE  COUNT  DE  DAVID  BEAUREGARD, 

TO  THE  AGRICULTURAL  ASSEMBLY  OF  TOULON,  UPOX  THE  ALCOHOLIZA- 
TION OP  THE  JUICE  OF  THE  SORGHO  SUCRE.   TOULON,  1857. 

WE  are  aware  of  the  fact  that  the  juice  of  the  sorgho,  whose  intro- 
duction we  owe  to  M.  Montigny,  has  within  itself  all  the  ferment 
necessary  for  the  transformation  of  its  saccharine  matter  into  alcohol. 
It  ferments  with  such  activity  under  a  sufficiently  elevated  tempera- 
ture, the  formation  of  a  great  quantity  of  alcohol  is  so  rapid  that  this 
reacts  upon  the  ferment,  of  which  a  portion  precipitates  itself  before 
having  had  time  to  accomplish  its  useful  transformation. 

Thus  it  often  happens  that  one,  two,  and  even  three  degrees  of  sugar 
remain  still  in  the  wine  of  the  sorgho  at  the  moment  when  the  fermen- 
tation ceases.  To  this  first  cause  of  loss  there  is  frequently  added 
another,  when  large  vats  are  made  use  of. 


REPORT   01''   COUNT  BEAUREGARD.  299 

The  temperature,  under  the  influence  of  this  tumultuous  fermenta- 
tion, arises  in  these  great  masses,  even  so  far  as  to  acquire,  in  warm 
weather,  from  35  to  40  degrees  centrigrade,  which  occasions  a  still 
further  loss  of  a  considerable  quantity  of  alcohol. 

Desirous  of  avoiding  the  viscous  fermentations  which  cause  so  much 
loss  in  sugar  beet  distilleries,  when  the  proper  degree  of  heat  for  tha 
ferment  is  wanting,  I  heated  my  juice  to  25°  before  putting  it  in  the 
vat,  which  I  rapidly  filled,  and  added  to  its  various  ferments.  I  not 
only  accomplished  my  purpose,  but  even  got  more  than  I  desired. 
The  fermentation  proceeded  with  great  violence.  The  imaginary 
inconvenience  which  I  wished  to  avoid  occasioned  me  a  serious  and  a 
real  one.  The  heat  and  ferment  only  aggravating  the  conditions  of 
the  operation,  and  I  was  not  slow  in  perceiving  that  we  obtained  as 
much  less  alcohol  as  the  fermentation  had  been  more  lively,  and  that 
there  remained  finally  in  the  wine  as  much  more  of  sugar  in  an 
unchanged  state. 

I  have  since  then  been  led  to  follow  an  entirely  opposite  course, 
seeking  to  render  the  fermentation  as  mild  as  possible,  but  however  to 
make  it  complete  by  sustaining  it  at  every  moment.  I  avoided  all 
use  of  ferment  in  the  juice  of  the  canes,  and  I  have  made  my  vat  of  a 
temperature  as  near  as  possible  from  10°  centigrade  to  zero. 

To  obtain  this  temperature  when  the  weather  is  warm  enough,  in 
September  or  October,  it  is  well  to  treat  only  the  canes  cut  the  even- 
ing before,  and  which  are  stacked  against  the  north  side  of  a  wall  to 
profit  by  the  moisture  of  the  night.  The  juice  likewise  should  be 
caused  to  run  into  the  vat  in  a  continuous  thread.  Into  the  vat  is  also 
introduced,  at  the  same  time,  a  thread  of  fresh  river  or  spring  water,  an  1 
if  this  should  not  be  had,  water  from  clean  well-built  wells.*  The  diame- 
ter of  this  thread  of  water  should  be  calculated,  so  that  the  mixture  of 
the  two  liquors  shall  mark  60°  on  Beaume's  Glucometer.  If  the 
machine  discharges  more  of  juice  than  is  necessary  to  obtain  this 
density  and  this  temperature,  the  necessary  number  of  vats  to  regulate 
that  should  be  simultaneously  filled.  When  frost  comes  it  is  necessary 

*  The  mode  of  feeding  can  be  altered.  After  a  first  vat  full,  In  place  of  water, 
vinasse  taken  from  the  still  retort  can  be  used,  or,  better  still,  the  results  from  tb-- 
maceration  of  the  bagasse. 


300  APPENDIX. 

to  warm  the  mixture  to  obtain  this  initial  temperature  of  10°  centi- 
grade. In  this  case  the  water  added  is  heated,  aud  not  the  juice.  It 
is  necessary  also,  when  the  temperature  of  the  juice  is  below  10°,  to 
elevate  the  temperature  of  the  water,  so  that  it  shall  exceed  10°  above 
zero  as  much  as  it  lacked  of  arriving  at  this  point  during  the  night 
preceding  the  filling  of  the  vats. 

Despite  this  low  temperature,  fermentation  commences  even  on  the 
firrft  day,  and  thanks  to  the  manner  in  which  it  commences  and  to  the 
mode  of  feeding,  it  is  maintained  mild  and  regular,  transforming  every 
day  into  alcohol  a  sixth  part  of  the  sugar  contained  in  the  mass,  and 
making  it  gain  two  degrees  of  heat  from  the  initial  temperature,*  so 
that  on  the  seventh  day,  my  vats,  of  a  capacity  of  about  250  gallons, 
contained  nothing  but  a  liquid  marking  zero  on  the  glucometer  of 
Beaume,  and  22°  of  heat  on  the  centigrade  thermometer. 

If  it  has  gained  only  two  degrees  of  heat  in  twenty  four  hours,  it 
will  be  found  that  the  transformation  of  the  sugar  into  alcohol  is 
diminishing,  and  the  water  should  be  heated  to  cause  the  mass  to  arrive 
at  the  desired  temperature  during  that  day. 

This  will  only  happen  when  the  outside  temperature  is  very  low.  It 
will  be  seen  that  the  thermometer  and  the  spirit  guage  are  two  instru- 
ments which  must  be  employed,  unless  tfte  operator  wishes  to  go  blindly 
to  work. 

The  sixth  day,  that  is  to  say,  as  soon  as  my  vat  is  filled,  I  stir  up 
the  mass  with  the  hand,  to  replace  in  suspension  whatever  portion  of 
the  ferment  remains  unappropriated.  The  next  morning  the  transform- 
ation is  perfect.  My  wine  is  made ;  but  to  abstract  from  the  alcohol 
a  slight  peculiar  taste,  due  to  the  presence  of  certain  essential  oils 
which  it  contains,  I  throw  that  day  into  the  vat  two  kilogrammes  of 
powdered  quick  lime,  (about  five  and  a  half  pounds,  troy,)  previously 
slacked  with  twenty  litres  of  water,  (six  gallons,)  and  again  rapidly 
stir  it  up  with  the  hands. 

The  lime  unites  with  the  essential  oils  to  form  an  insoluble  com- 
pound, which  is  precipitated. 

We  will  let  the  fluid  remain  quiet  for  two  days,  and  we  then  distil 

*  On  the  morning  before  recommencing  the  distillation,  the  state  of  the  fermenta- 
tion and  the  temperature  of  the  vat  should  especially  be  examined 


EEPORT  OF  COUNT  BEAUREGARD.       301 

it  in  the  Derosne  apparatus,  and  obtain  in  alcohol  "  3|6  "  of  an 
agreeable  taste,  reminding  one  somewhat  of  kirsch,  almost  as  strong 
per  cent,  as  the  juices  indicated  of  degrees  on  the  Beaume  glucomcter, 
say  usually  from  eight  to  ten  per  cent. 

This  result,  which  I  invariably  obtained  since  my  change  of  system, 
seems  to  me  of  such  a  nature  as  to  give  confidence  to  those  who,  up  to 
this  time,  have  not  dared  to  undertake  the  culture  of  the  sorgho,  and 
also  to  favor  the  establishment  of  distilleries,  where  the  profitable 
manufacture,  on  a  large  scale,  of  the  crops  brought  in  by  the  farmers 
of  the  neighborhood  can  be  undertaken. 

But  in  this  regard,  gentlemen,  and  to  enlighten  those  who  would  be 
tempted  to  organize  an  enterprise  of  this  nature,  I  believe  it  is  useful 
to  add  some  words  on  the  method  I  have  employed  up  to  this  time,  to 
extract  the  juice  of  the  cane.  By  mentioning  the  advantages  and  dis- 
advantages of  my  process,  I  can  enable  others  to  profit  by  the  experi- 
ence, and  do  better. 

You  already  know,  gentlemen,  that  to  extract  the  juice  of  the  canes, 
I  pass  them  between  plate  cylinders,  as  is  done  in  the  colonies  with 
tropical  sugar  cane.  This  mode  of  extraction,  sanctioned  by  long 
custom,  has  seemed  to  me,  more  prudent  to  use  at  first ;  but  in  order 
that  none  of  the  juice  may  be  lost,  it  is  requisite  to  key  up  the  cylin- 
ders very  closely,  which  requires  the  employment  of  a  strong  motive 
power. 

When  the  operator  can  make  use  of  a  strong  and  natural  force,  a 
fine  waterfall,  for  instance,  the  inconvenience  which  we  notice  is  no 
longer  met  with ;  but  if  this  cannot  be  obtained,  it  would  be  well  to 
try  some  other  mode  of  extraction,  requiring  less  motive  power.  A 
crusher,  a  stalk  or  straw  cutter,  or  other  similar  instruments,  can  ac- 
complish the  end  desired. 

The  state  in  which  the  canes  are  found,  according  to  the  mode 
adopted  for  dividing  them,  will  naturally  necessitate  particular  ar- 
rangements in  the  work  for  the  extraction  of  the  juice,  their  fermenta- 
tion and  their  distillation ;  but  this  is  not  the  place  to  enter  into  the 
details  of  the  subject.  I  wish  simply  to  guard  you  against  the  idea 
that  the  crushing  cylinders  will  be  found  to  be,  in  all  circumstances, 


302  APPENDIX. 

and  in  every  case,  the  most  suitable  method  of  extraction  to  be 
employed. 

***** 

Of  the  other  aspects  of  the  culture  of  the  sorgho,  I  shall  not  speak 
at  present,  but  having  confined  myself  to  the  particular  department  of 
alcohol  manufacture,  on  which  much  light  was  needed,  I  shall  esteem 
myself  happy,  gentlemen,  if  I  can  contribute  to  extend  the  culture  of 
a  plant  which,  for  many  reasons,  seems  to  be  one  of  the  most  precious 
which  Providence  has  ever  placed  at  our  disposal. 

COUNT  DE  DAVID  BEAUREGARD, 
President  of  the  Agricultural  Assembly  of  Toulon. 
TOULON,  Dec.  2, 1856. 


LETTER  FROM  PROF.  AVEQUIN. 

To  the  Editor  of  the  N.  0.  Bee: 

You  have  published  at  different  times  during  the  past  year,  some 
facts  concerning  the  sorgho  sucre,  Holcus  saccharatus,  called  the 
Chinese  Sorgho.  These  communications  failing  to  give  anything 
exact  as  to  the  value  of  this  plant,  as  an  object  of  culture  in  Louisiana, 
or  as  to  the  amount  of  sugar  to  be  extracted  from  it,  allow  me  to  add 
something  to  what  is  already  known  of  it,  and  thus  assist  in  arriving 
at  definite  conclusions. 

For  some  two  years  past  the  seed  has  been  sown  by  several  planters 
in  small  quantities,  and  with  favorable  results  ;  but  I  know  of  none 
who  have  attempted  to  extract  the  sugar  in  large  quantity.  Still,  this 
plant  is  quite  important ;  it  ripens  three  months  before  the  sugar  cane, 
and  it  can  be  crushed  from  the  early  part  of  August,  and  throughout  the 
whole  of  September,  or  still  later  even.  This  is  at  once  a  decided 
advantage.  But  those  who  have  written  upon  the  sorgho  have,  to  my 


M.  VILMORIN'S  RESEARCHES.  303 

mind,  a  little  exaggerated  its  sugar  producing  qualities,  and  its  yield 
per  acre. 

*****  >phe  sorgno  that  I  examined  towards  the  middle 
of  September,  had  arrived  at  full  maturity,  perhaps  a  little  past ;  it 
had  been  sown  in  good  season. 

The  expressed  juice  of  the  sorgho  is  somewhat  more  turbid  than 
cane  juice,  but  it  is  clarified  by  milk  of  lime  as  readily  as  is  the  latter. 
The  green  froths  which  arise  from  it  are  nearly  analogous  to  those 
from  the  juice  of  the  cane.  This  sap  had  a  density  of  1064 ;  it  reached 
almost  9°  Beaume,  and  had  an  acid  reaction  similar  to  that  of  all  the 
juices  of  canes.  This  property  it  owes  to  the  acid  phosphate  of  lime 
which  it  contains.  This  same  salt  exists  to  an  equal  degree  in  the 
sugar  cane. 

The  sap  of  the  sorgho  contains  a  trifle  more  of  salts  of  potash,  acid 
phosphates  of  lime,  and  phosphate  of  magnesia,  than  any  equal  quan- 
tity of  cane  juice — at  least  I  have  found  it  so  in  the  sap  of  the  sorgho 
which  I  analyzed ;  it  may  possibly  be  that  other  specimens  would 
contain  less. 

A  litre  of  the  sap  of  the  sugar  sorgho  contains  7-50  grammes  of 
salts  of  potash,  acetate  of  potash,  muriate  of  potash,  and  sulphate  of 
potash.  A  gallon  of  it  contains  28-38  grammes,  or  little  more  than 
an  ounce. 

A  litre  of  the  sap  gives  2-18  grammes  of  acid  phosphate  of  lime  and 
of  phosphate  of  magnesia.  A  gallon  contains  8'23  grammes.  A  litre 
has  given  0'12  grammes  of  hydrated  silica,  mixed  with  oxide  of  iroif 
and  manganese.  A  gallon  contains  0'45  grammes.  These  matters  are 
all  in  solution  in  the  sap  of  the  sorgho,  together  with  other  organic 
matter,  such  as  albumen,  vegetable  fibrine,  chlorophyl,  &c.  These 
latter  substances  offer  no  impediment  to  the  extraction  of  the  sugar 
from  the  sorgho. 

The  sorgho,  from  a  given  weight,  affords  less  sap  than  the  sugar 
cane,  at  least  such  is  indicated  by  my  experiments.  It  may  be  that  if 
taken  when  less  ripe,  the  sorgho  would  give  a  larger  yield  of  sap. 
From  several  stalks  of  sorgho  of  good  quality  and  fully  ripe,  I  have 
only  obtained  42  per  cent,  of  juice  by  expression,  whilst  I  have  readily 
obtained  64  per  cent,  from  the  cane  by  the  same  process. 


30-i  APPENDIX. 

When  a  litre  of  sap  of  the  sugar  sorgho  weighs  1064  grammes, 
aoout  9°  Beaume,  a  gallon  of  this  same  sap  weighs  4  kilogrammes  0'31 
grammes,  or  8  Ibs.  14  oz.  'L  drachms  14  grains,  English  weight.  This 
gallon  of  sap  contains  652  grammes  of  sugar,  salts,  and  organic  mat 
ters,  or  1  Ib.  7  oz.  4  gr  ,  English  weight. 

It  gives  per  1000  parts,  in  weight : 

Sugar 152 

Salts  and  organic  matters 10 

Water 838 

1000 

To  make  one  thousand  Ibs.  of  unrefined  sugar,  cleansed  and  well 
dropped,  with  sap  of  the  sorgho  of  a  density  of  1064,  requires  1250 
to  1300  gallons  of  sap.  This  sugar  is  of  the  same  kind  as  that  ex- 
tracted from  the  cane. 

The  sugar  of  the  sorgho  will  give  almost  as  much  molasses  as  the 
cane  sugar  in  Louisiana,  perhaps  a  little  less,  because  it  has  a  density 
a  trifle  more  than  the  average  of  the  cane  in  Louisiana,  at  least  that 
which  I  have  examined. 

One  thousand  pounds  of  this  sugar  thoroughly  clarified,  will  not 
give  less  than  fifty-five  gallons  of  molasses  ;  in  some  instances  the  molasses 
would  be  in  much  greater  proportion.  In  this  respect  the  sorgho  will 
share  the  vicissitudes  of  the  sugar  cane — succeeding  years  would  not 
give  equal  results. 

An  arpent  (six  sevenths  of  an  acre)  of  sorgho,  well  cultivated,  with 
a  good  yield,  might  give  eight  hundred  to  one  thousand  Ibs.  of  raw 
sugar,  clarified  and  saleable.  The  experiments  which  I  have  made 
upon  the  subject  show  this  clearly  enough.  Certainly  the  sorgho  cannot 
supersede  the  sugar  cane  in  Louisiana ;  but  it  has  great  advantage 
over  the  cane,  in  that  it  can  be  crushed  from  the  early  part  of  August, 
and  throughout  September,  whilst  the  cane  cannot  be  crushed  until 
about  the  first  of  November.  It  remains  to  be  known  if  this  ad- 
vantage can  reconcile  itself  with  the  other  interests  of  the  planter ; 
this  I  have  not  sought  to  establish. 

The  sap  of  the  sorgho,  after  having  been  clarified,  as  do  all  the 


M.  VILMORIN'S  RESEARCHES.  305 

sugary  juices,  can  take  ou  the  alcoholic  fermentation ;  it  is  almost 
needless  to  mention  this  here.  It  may  be  distilled,  and  will  yield  tafia, 
the  same  as  that  from  the  sugar  cane.  The  molasses  dripping  from 
the  raw  sugar  of  the  sorgho  juice  may  likewise  produce  rum  or 
alcohol,  as  desired ;  but  these  alcoholic  liquors  have  nothing  of  the 
flavor  of  Cognac  brandies,  and  cannot  replace  them  in  their  various 
uses. 

We  will  conclude  this  notice  by  saying  that  the  sugar  sorgho  makes 
an  excellent  forage  for  animals,  preferable  to  corn  stalks.  Cows, 
horses,  mules  and  oxen  devour  the  leaves  and  the  entire  stalk,  even  to 
the  last  particle.  We  ask  of  the  planters  to  make  trial  of  this  plant, 
either  as  a  green  fodder,  or  for  the  extraction  of  sugar.  An  experi- 
ment upon  twenty-five  or  thirty  acres  would  be  no  great  expense  for 
them. 

Agree,  gentlemen,  &c.,  AVEQUIN. 

SEPT.,  1855. 


800  APPENDIX. 


ALCOHOLIZATION   OF  THE   STALKS   OF   INDIAN 
CORN  AND  THE  SUGAR  SORGHO. 

BY    DURET,   CHEMIST,    PARIS,   1857. 
*****  *#* 

THE  plant  known  under  the  name  of  sorgho,  has  been  cultivated  for 
a  long  time  in  France,  but  is  not  designated  under  that  name  in  the 
west.  It  has  been  known  under  the  name  of  broom  corn,  and  under 
the  name  of  millet,  in  Gascony  and  the  department  of  Landes.  In 
the  early  stages  of  growth,  our  indigenous  sorgho  differs  very  little 
from  corn ;  has  the  some  appearance,  same  leaf,  same  rapidity  of 
growth.  In  proportion  as  the  plant  grows,  the  peculiar  appearance 
of  each  is  manifested.  The  leaves  of  the  sorgho  are  less  developed, 
its  stalks  more  hardy,  more  woody,  grow  to  a  greater  height,  whilst 
those  of  the  corn,  more  tender  and  full,  preserve  the  appearance  of 
the  sugar  cane.  This  circumstance,  which  is  met  equally  in  the  new 
sugar  sorgho,  causes  us  to  think  that  it  would  be  without  doubt 
preferable  to  corn  for  the  manufacture  of  sugar,  because  its  juice 
should  contain  less  mucilage.  Every  one  knows  that  this  vegetable 
product  is  injurious  in  the  manufacture  of  sugar.  The  following 
article  upon  the  sugar  sorgho  we  find  in  the  journal  L'utile  el 
I'agreable,  for  the  month  of  April,  1855  : 

"  The  sugar  sorgho  (holcus  saccharatus)  has  been  introduced  into 
France  by  M.  Montigny,  who  has  brought  this  plant  from  China, 
where  it  is  cultivated  like  grain.  It  is  there  designated  under  the 
name  of  sugar  cane  of  the  north  of  China.  The  Chinese  Tartars 
make  great  use  of  it.  At  the  great  exposition  of  Moscow,  in  1852, 
some  of  the  stalks  of  this  kind  of  sorgho  were  exhibited  under  the 
title  Precieux  Gaoutlam  de  la  Chine  gramine.  Various  experiments 
in  the  cultivation  of  this  plant  have  been  made  in  several  of  our  depart- 
ments, from  which  it  has  been  proved  that  it  ripens  perfectly  in  the 
south  of  France. 

"A  report  of  the  Agricultural  Assembly  of  Toulon,  to  the  Minister 
of  War,  has  communicated  curious  details  upon  the  sugar  sorgho  in 
respect  to  the  agricultural  industry,  and  to  the  manufacture  of  sorgho, 


ALCOHOLIZATION.  307 

and  also  of  distillation.  The  different  experiments  made  in  Le  Var 
have  given  very  important  practical  results,  proving  that  the  vesou  or 
juice  obtained  from  the  sorgho  is  endowed  with  an  alcoholic  richness 
much  superior  to  that  of  all  other  substitutes  for  the  vine. 

"  The  sugar  beet  contains  8  to  10  per  cent,  of  saccharine  matter. 
The  sorgho,  as  has  been  proved  by  the  experiments  at  Verrieres,  by 
M.  Vilmorin,  have  given  16  to  20  per  cent.,  from  which  can  be 
obtained  8  to  10  litres  of  pure  alcohol,  appropriate  for  all  industrial 
and  domestic  use  ;  and  as  this  precious  cereal,  an  excellent  nourishment 
for  the  stock,  which  eat  it  greedily,  developes  itself  with  extreme 
rapidity,  the  same  where  irrigation  is  rare  and  difficult,  it  will  be 
readily  understood  that  this  is  destined  to  play  an  important  part  in 
our  cultivations,  and  especially  in  those  of  Algeria.  M.  Turrel,  the 
author  of  the  report,  says  that  in  accepting  for  France  the  yield 
obtained  at  Verrieres  by  M.  Vilmorin,  with  the  sorgho  cultivated  on 
his  estate,  we  would  have  the  following  result.  The  sorgho  furnishes 
at  a  minimum  of  50  per  cent,  weight  of  its  stalks  in  sweet  juice.  As 
a  minimum  yield,  calculated  according  to  the  result  at  Verrieres,  would 
be  about  30,000  kilogrammes  to  the  hectare.  From  it  could  be 
extracted  at  least  21  hectolitres  of  alcohol  of  a  value  of  3,780  francs, 
which  would  give  to  the  hectare  a  yield  that  no  other  agricultural 
product  can  hope  to  equal.  Let  us  add,  that  the  yield  in  Provence 
and  in  Algeria  would  be  probably  more  considerable  than  that 
obtained  at  Verrieres.  M.  Vilmorin  notices  a  remarkable  superiority 
of  the  sorgho :  the  purity  of  its  juice  is  such  that  brandies  of  the 
first  quality  coming  from  it  are  sufficiently  pure  to  be  directly  put  into 
manufacture.  M.  De  Beauregard,  in  a  recent  report  to  the  Assembly 
of  Toulon,  has  shown  that  having  distilled  the  juice  of  the  sorgho 
fermented  by  the  assistance  of  the  grape  stems,  or  of  the  bagasse  of  the 
cane  itself,  he  has  obtained  an  alcohol  of  excellent  flavor,  which  has 
been  sold  in  the  Marseilles  market  at  the  ordinary  price  of  other 
alcohols  (200  francs  the  hectolitre  of  316).  Several  cultivators,  of 
Haute  Marne  are  also  undertaking  the  extensive  culture  of  the  sorgho. 
One  of  them,  M.  Ponsard,  has  made  for  three  years  experiments  upon 
this  plant.  '  From  it,'  says  he,  '  I  have  arrived  at  the  conviction  that 
the  holcus  saccharatus  cannot  in  the  climate  of  Paris  be  cultivated 
on  a  large  scale  for  manufacture.  It  will  have  an  enormous  yield  as 


308  APPENDIX. 

a  forage,  but  as  a  sugar  plant  it  will  only  be  very  lucrative  at  the 
south.  This  has  been  well  understood  by  the  seedsmen  of  Paris,  who 
have  sowed  in  Provence  their  stocks  of  seed  for  sale.  This  plant  is 
very  prolific  in  seed.  It  is  probable  that  in  a  very  little  time  it  will 
be  sold  at  as  low  a  price  as  that  of  the  common  sorghos.  Of  an 
easy  culture  and  extraordinary  hardiness ;  considerable  yield  iu  three 
different  respects,  seed,  forage,  and  sugar  ;  these  are  the  advantages 
presented  by  this  plant. 

"  Its  syrup  is  without  any  unpleasant  taste  :  its  alcohol  very  pure, 
and  without  a  trace  of  empyreumatic  oils,  so  abundant  in  the  alcohol 
of  the  beet.  The  fermented  juice  makes  a  very  agreeable  drink.  M. 
Vilmorin  has  made  of  it  a  cider  quite  analogous  to  the  cider  from 
apples.  He  has  mixed  with  it,  in  variable  quantities,  various  other 
ciders  and  drinks  made  from  fruits,  and  always  with  a  decided  advan- 
tage. 

"  From  the  necessity  of  not  covering  the  seed  of  this  plant  too  deep, 
in  order  to  facilitate  the  germination,  the  sowings  should  be  made  on  a 
hot-bed,  to  preserve  them  from  the  birds,  and  other  thieving  animals."* 

M.  Ponsard  adds  :"  It  is  to  be  hoped,  and  I  am  shortly  expecting 
this  result  to  happen,  that  the  cultivation  in  the  climate  of  Paris  will 
render  this  plant  more  precocious,  and  that  some  varieties  will  be  dis- 
covered which  will  perfectly  ripen  their  seed  in  this  latitude.  Under 
these  conditions,  the  holcus  saccharatus  will  take  its  appropriate  and 
important  position.  From  the  cultivation  of  a  small  plot  of  this  seed, 
a  person  could  have  seeds  for  his  poultry,  forage  for  his  cow,  and  an 
agreeable  and  abundant  drink  for  himself." 

We  will  mention,  in  concluding  our  remarks  concerning  the  trials  of 
the  cultivation  of  the  sorgho,  which  have  been  made  at  Hyeres  by  M. 
Rautonnet :  "  The  plant,  in  ordinary  conditions,  has  furnished  30,000 
kilogrammes  of  juice  to  the  hectare — a  yield  which  exceeds  that  of  the 
beet.  One  stalk,  of  450  grammes,  gives  150  grammes  of  juice,  con- 
taining 10  to  15  per  cent,  of  sugar." 

*  We  do  not  agree  with  M.  Bcnsart,  that  the  culture  of  the  sorgho,  which  is  entirely 
like  thaC  of  broom  corn,  should  be  protected  in  the  same  manner.  The  transplanting 
of  it  will  injure  its  ulterior  development.  To  preserve  the  seed  against  birds,  it  is 
much  better  to  wateh  the  crops,  as  is  the  custom  with  other  seeds,  until  the  plant 
comes  out  of  the  ground  and  has  acquired  sufficient  strength  to  defend  itself  against 
their  voracity.  To  expedite  this  matter,  the  seed  may  be  steeped  before  sowing. 


ALCOHOLIZATION.  S09 

Before  going  further,  it  appears  to  us  useful  to  compare  the  different 
sugar-bearing  vegetables,  to  glance  at  their  yield  of  sugar. 

1.  The  sugar  cane  gives,  by  the  old  process    -    14  per  cent. 
By  the  new  apparatus,  perfected  by  Derosne 

&Kyle 20  " 

2.  The  sorgho  cultivated  in  the  South   -        -  20  " 

3.  Maple  tree    -  4  " 

4.  The  beet  -                        ....  10  « 
But,  in  practice,  obtain  only  ...  6  " 

5.  The  Jerusalem  artichoke,  from  15  to  16  per 

cent. -        -    15      " 

6.  Corn  cultivated  at  Paris        ...        10       " 

7.  Corn  cultivated  at  New  Orleans          -      -    17      " 

If  this  last  figure  is  reliable,  which  we  do  not  greatly  doubt,  the 
corn  cultivated  in  the  south  of  France  will  give  a  result  almost  equiv- 
alent. It  will  be  understood  that  their  conditions  of  growth  are 
similar  in  the  corn  as  in  the  sorgho.  In  rainy  seasons,  a  juice  con- 
taining more  of  water,  should,  by  that  very  fact,  contain  a  less  pro- 
portion of  sugar  ;  which  explains  the  remarkable  differences  between 
the  analysis  made  by  different  experimenters.  Here,  then,  we  are  in 
possession  of  two  plants  equally  interesting  and  equally  productive  of 
sugar  ;  for  there  exists  between  them  some  differences  upon  the  score 
of  yield.  This  would  only  be  matter  of  greater  or  less  quantity ;  but 
their  expressed  juices  are,  chemically,  the  same.  These  two  varieties 
have  between  them  a  relationship  so  similar,  that  it  should  not  be  an 
astonishing  matter  to  see  them  giving  similar  products.  We  have 
seen,  in  the  article  extracted  from  the  journal,  L'utile  et  I' Agreeable, 
that  M.  Vilmorin  has  made  with  the  fermented  juice  of  the  sugar 
sorgho  a  cider  of  good  quality.  The  fermented  liquor  of  corn  would 
be  quite  similar  to  it.  What  confirms  this  fact  is,  that  in  Chili,  and 
in  a  part  of  South  America,  according  to  the  saying  of  travelers, 
they  make  with  the  stalk  of  maize  a  species  of  fermented  liquor  called 
chica,  which  has,  they  say,  the  appearance  and  taste  of  a  real  cider 
from  apples.  They  add,  that  it  is  in  common  use  in  the  households  ; 
and  that,  distilled,  it  furnishes  a  brandy  very  agreeable,  which  has 
quite  a  similarity  to  rum.  With  these  facts  before  us,  then,  we  advise 


310  APPENDIX. 

the  reader,  that  in  the  following  considerations  we  will  not  distinguish 
between  the  two  plants  in  all  that  respects  the  time  of  their  maturity, 
their  leafing,  the  grating  of  their  stalks,  the  pressure  of  the  pulp,  and 
the  use  of  the  residues.  They  should  be  treated  in  the  same  manner 

throughout And  seeing  all  the  good  that  is  said  of  the  sugar 

sorgho  and  the  articles  published  in  its  praise,  we  do  not  understand 
why  maize  is  passed  by  unnoticed.  Is  this  a  matter  of  speculation,  or 
a  furor  for  a  new  product,  such  as  is  produced  every  day  with  all  new 
things.  We  are  ignorant  on  the  subject.  We  are  far  from  dissuad- 
ing agriculturists  from  undertaking  the  cultivation  of  the  sugar  sorgho. 
We  are  much  pleased,  on  the  contrary,  to  give  it  a  decided  support, 
and  we  place  it  in  the  first  rank  among  our  recent  agricultural  acquisi- 
tions ;  but  these  advantages  should  not  hinder  us  from  rendering  to 
each  other  product,  of  a  similar  nature,  the  justice  which  is  their  due. 
While  awaiting,  then,  the  generalization  of  the  culture  of  the  sorgho 
in  our  southern  provinces,  we  beg  that  the  cultivators  will  distil  the 
stalks  of  the  corn.  Besides  the  product  in  brandy,  they  will  find  in 
the  residue  the  means  of  increasing  the  food  for  their  stock,  in  a 
country  where  it  is  generally  scarce  and  dear.  Let  proper  attention 
be  given  to  both  maize  and  the  sugar  sorgho ;  the  results  will  be  about 
the  same.  The  capital  point  to  obtain  complete  success  is  to  seize 
the  exact  favorable  moment  for  gathering  the  stalks.  If  too  soon, 
the  plant  contains  too  much  mucilage  and  gum  ;  if  too  late,  the  seed 
has  consumed  part  of  the  sugar  contained  in  the  stalk  ;  at  least,  it  is 
so  in  the  maize. 

It  is  probable  that,  at  a  subsequent  day,  there  will  be  erected  in 
the  southern  districts  manufactories  for  treating  the  sugar  sorgho, 
which  we  believe  fully  to  be  more  appropriate  for  the  manufacture  of 
sugar  than  corn,  because  we  judge  that  its  juice  contains  less  of 
mucilage  and  gum.*  The  yield  of  the  sugar  sorgho  being  equal  to 

*  Our  author  has  here  made  a  very  important  distinction  between  the  maize  and 
the  sorgho.  The  sugar'of  the  corn,  after  the  ripening  of  the  seed,  is  very  rapidly  and 
considerably  reduced;  but  -with  the  sorgho,  if  we  may  judge  from  the  experiments 
made  in  Algiers  by  M.  Hardy,  not  only  does  it  not  lose  in  its  proportion  of  sugar  by 
standing  in  the  field  after  it  has  attained  a  complete  maturity,  but,  if  the  tufts  be  cut 
off,  the  juice  will  actually  show  on  the  saccharometer  a  perceptible  increase  in 
strength.— H.  8.  O. 


ALCOHOLIZATION.  311 

that  of  the  sugar  cane,  the  planters  of  the  south  can,  with  profit, 
compete  against  the  sugars  from  the  beets  and  from  the  colonies. 
Undertakings  of  this  sort  would  give  very  large  profits,  doubtless. 
Not  only  is  the  sugar  sorgho  more  rich  than  the  beet,  but  it  ripens 
much  more  rapidly  than  the  sugar  cane.  The  agreeable  use  that  can 
be  made  of  the  molasses  and  the  pulps  of  this  plant,  place  it,  in  this 
regard,  in  a  position  uuequaled  by  others. 

What  we  have  said  concerning  the  erection  of  manufactories  of 
sugar  in  the  south  of  France  for  working  up  the  crops  of  sugar  sorgho, 
should  be  considered  more  as  a  hope  than  as  a  prophecy  to  be  immedi- 
ately realized.  In  these  unenlightened  districts,  ingenious  ideas  applied 
to  agriculture  are  so  scarce  that  we  have  but  small  hope  of  a  speedy 
realization  of  enterprises  such  as  these.  *  *  *  * 

EXTRACTION  OF  THE  JUICE  OF  THE  MAIZE  AND  OF  THE  SUGAR  SORGHO. 

To  extract  juice  of  sugar  bearing  plants,  there  is,  independent  of  the 
pressure  of  which  we  have  already  spoken,  an  expeditious  process. 
This  is  maceration.  This  system  has  been  applied  with  success  in  the 
manufacture  from  the  beet.  It  has  been  found  that  those  treated  thus 
are  purer,  ferment  better,  and  suffer  less  change  than  when  they  are 
obtained  by  prolonged  pressure.  Independent  of  regularity,  which  is 
the  distinct  property  of  maceration,  the  treatment  of  beets  by  this 
method  is  an  excellent  one  in  more  ways  than  one.  On  the  one  hand, 
the  acidulated  liquid  boiling  increases  the  sugar  in  the  beets,  sacchari- 
fying them.  On  the  other  hand,  it  raises  the  temperature  of  the  juice, 
and  disposes  them  to  undergo  a  good  fermentation.  Maceration,  then, 
is  particularly  advantageous  and  applicable  to  the  beet  distilleries, 
nearly  all  of  which  are  in  operation  at  the  North,  and  at  work  on  the 
coldest  days  of  the  year.  But  it  is  entirely  different  with  the  maize 
and  the  sorgho,  as  to  distillation.  Being  accomplished  at  the  South, 
and  oftentimes  with  the  greatest  heat  of  weather,  the  warming  of  the 
juice  is  not  necessary,  any  more  than  saccharification.  The  sugar 
being1  entirely  formed  in  these  plants,  maceration  in  cold  water  would 
have  the  effect  of  weakeuin  >;  these  juices.  It  is  just  upon  these  points 
of  consideration  that  the  press  is  preferable  for  it,  because  they  yield 
then  the  sweetest  and  densest  juices  In  this  condition  they  present 


312  APPENDIX. 

less  obstacle  to  fermentation  and  distillation  ;  although,  it  may  be  known 
that  the  more  sugar  is  dissolved  in  water,  the  more  prompt  and  complete 
is  its  conversion  into  alcohol,  nevertheless,  this  absence  of  water  can  be 
compensated  for  by  a  temperature  more  elevated,  with  the  addition  of 
an  increase  of  ferment.  As  the  still  retorts  already  in  operation  in  the 
vine  districts  operate  mildly,  and  as  we  do  not  wish  to  change  them, 
it  is  much  preferable,  it  will  be  understood,  to  distil  the  juices  ferment- 
ed at  ten  to  twelve  degrees  of  the  saccharometer,  than  liquors  of  five  to 
six  degrees,  like  those  of  the  beet,  obtained  by  maceration. 

FERMENTATION. 

The  juice  of  the  sugar  sorgho  contains  truly  its  ferment  in  but  small 
quantity.  It  is  well,  then,  to  add  to  it,  and  even  to  force  the  quantity 
to  operate  with  more  rapidity.  This  celerity  is  especially  necessary 
when  the  liquor  is  destined  to  be  put  to  immediate  distillation.  It 
would  be  quite  the  contrary,  though,  if  this  kind  of  cider  is  desired  to 
be  preserved  for  a  long  time.  The  quantity  of  the  fresh  yeast  of  beer 
to  use,  is  about  500  grammes  to  the  hectolitre  of  juice  in  fermentation. 

In  those  districts  far  removed  from  the  cities,  it  will  often  be  diffi- 
cult to  procure  the  yeast  of  beer  fresh  enough,  because  the  brewers  are 
very  scarce.  To  obviate  this  inconvenience,  which  may  present  itself 
in  spite  of  all  possible  precautions,  we  propose  to  replace  it  with 
the  lees  of  wine,  red  or  white,  pressed  and  putrified  a  little,  that  may 
be  dissolved  in  the  juice  in  the  same  proportion  as  would  be  the  yeast. 
It  is  well  to  notice  that  white  lees  have  less  action  than  red  ones,  and 
that,  consequently,  there  would  be  needed  a  greater  quantity  of  those 
to  produce  the  same  effect.  Yeast,  when  it  can  be  procured,  should 
be  preserved  in  a  cool  place  until  the  moment  of  using  it ;  otherwise 
it  will  pass  into  putrefaction,  and  will  no  longer  be  good  for  use. 

The  fermentation  of  the  juice  may  be  sufficiently  well  done  in  the 
great  tuns  used  for  wine  in  distilling  districts.  It  is  well  to  remark 
that  fermentation  is  accomplished  more  readily  and  completely  in  ves- 
sels of  great  capacity,  than  in  those  which  are  smaller.  A  more  ele- 
vated temperature  is  also  necessary  for  this  latter.  However,  in  the 
absence  of  the  first,  we  may  make  use  of  the  second,  but  it  is  necessary 
to  practice  the  method  emp  :>yed  for  wines  destined  for  the  boiler. 


ALCOHOLIZATION.  313 

These  wines  are  fermented  naturally,  and  without  the  use  of  dregs,  in 
the  large  vats,  which  are  partially  filled.  This  process  presents  two 
advantages  :  the  first  is  escaping  the  loss  of  the  liquid,  which  wastes 
nothing  at  the  bung  during  the  tumultuous  fermentation  ;  the  second 
is  rendering  the  fermentation  more  prompt,  by  reason  of  the  sweet, 
liquid  being  found  in  contact  with  a  larger  mass  of  air.  This  circum- 
stance is  very  important  for  the  production  of  alcohol.  Every  one 
knows  that  if  wine  preserves  its  sweetness  at  the  moment  of  introduc- 
ing it  in  the  still  retort,  there  is  a  loss  for  the  distiller.  This  circum- 
stance indicates  that  all  the  sugar  is  not  decomposed,  that  is  to  say,  not 
converted  into  alcohol.  When  the  tumultuous  fermentation  is  termi- 
nated, it  is  not  proposed  to  distil  the  liquor  immediately  ;  it  may  be 
drawn  from  the  tuns  and  transferred  into-  the  casks,  in  order  to  escape 
the  evaporation  which  would  take  place  in  large  vessels  but  partially 
closed. 

FERMENTING  HOUSES. 

We  will  say  but  little  upon  these  fermenting  rooms.  Their  tempera- 
ture should  be  maintained  at  about  twenty-five  to  thirty  degrees.  In 
the  summer  it  would  be  well  to  take  certain  precautions  not  to  suffer 
this  to  be  exceeded.  For  this  purpose,  it  will  be  well  to  open  the 
doors  and  windows  during  the  night,  and  closing  them  at  «n  early 
hour  in  the  morning.  In  order  to  maintain  the  fermenting  room  at  ;: 
constant  temperature,  it  should  not  be  entered  except  when  absolutely 
necessary,  and  kept  tightly  closed.  It  is  well  understood  that  all  we 
say  here  only  applies  to  distilling  practice  in  the  summer  time,  upon 
the  maize  and  sugar  sorgho,  intended  to  be  fed  to  cattle  afterwards, 
of  which  the  juice  are  extracted  previously  to  make  them  ferment  and 
distil  This  manufacture,  beginning  in  the  month  of  June,  should  con- 
tinue throughout  the  months  of  July,  August  and  September,  and  be 
completed  about  the  end  of  October. 

As  to  the  distillation  of  the  maize  and  the  sugar  sorgho,  from  whicl; 
the  seed  is  removed,  as  it  is  doue  in  the  fall,  it  will  be  no  longer  neces- 
sary to  guard  against  an  excessive  temperature.  It  may  be  useful  in 
certain  cases  to  warm  the  place  artificially,  and  even  to  warm  the  juice 
14 


314  APPENDIX. 

To  avoid  the  constant  purchase  of  new  quantities  of  beer  yeast,  it 
would  be  well  to  fit  against  the  vats  some  box  or  receptacle  iu  such  a 
way  that  the  ferment  which  escapes  from  the  bunghole  can  be  received 
iu  the  vessel  placed  below  it.  This  ferment  will  do  for  subsequent 
fermentations,  in  place  of  wine  lees  or  beer  yeast.  On  the  same  princi- 
ple, the  i'erineut  which  floats  on  the  surface,  in  the  large  vats,  may  be 
employed  ;  and  the  whole  of  this  should  be  kept  in  a  cellar  until  the 
moment  of  using  them.  When  it  is  thought  proper  to  wash  the  pulps, 
or  parenchymas,  in  place  of  pure  water,  vinasse,  or  others,  should  be 
employed,  and  then  the  pulps  should  be  again  put  in  press.  These 
wines,  and  those  cooled  containing  their  ferment,  will  permit  of 
diminishing  by  so  much  as  the  quantity  is  judged  necessary  for  a  good 
fermentation.  To  warm  the  juice  of  the  maize  and  of  the  sugar  sorgho 
when  it  is  judged  necessary,  a  large  cauldron  will  be  suitable,  such  a 
one  as  is  frequently  found  on  estates.  In  the  opposite  case,  the  caul- 
dron which  is  used  for  distilling  wines  would  be  made  use  of,  always 
taking,  however,  the  precaution  of  malpng  it  perfectly  clean  before 
using  it. 

In  place  of  selling  the  ciders  of  the  sorgho  manufactured  for  the 
still  retort,  to  professional  distilleries,  it  will  be  much  more  profitable 
for  the  planters  to  distil  it  themselves.  We  recommend,  then,  all  wLo 
shall  undertake  this  industry,  to  purchase  apparatus  of  the  kind  we 
notice  in  another  place.  This  practice  is  much  preferable  to  that  in 
use  at  the  South.  There  the  planter  is  obliged  to  take  care  of  his 
wines,  and  experience  the  loss  resulting  from  the  presses  up  to  the 
very  moment  of  giving  them  to  the  distiller.  Furthermore,  the  costs 
of  transportation,  even  to  the  distillery,  are  to  be  met  by  him,  all  of 
which  diminish  by  so  much  his  profits.  The  prices  of  the  proper  stills 
are  quite  moderate,  and  they  give  excellent  yields  of  brandy.  As  they 
are  not  at  all  complicated,  or  liable  to  get  out  of  order,  the  most 
ordinary  hands  will  usually  be  able  to  conduct  them  after  ~a  few  days' 
practice. 

The  method  which  we  have  adopted  for  the  distilling  of  the  sorgho 
is  so  simple,  that  we  really  believe  that  its  general  adoption  presents 
but  very  slight  difficulty.  Each  one  can,  with  our  work  in  his  hand, 
undertake  this  industry.  A.  reference  to  the  list  of  utensils  indis 


ALCOHOLIZATION.  315 

pensable  for  the  work,  will  show  to  our  readers  that  tbe  expenses  to  be 
met  are  really  insignificant. 

List  of  Apparatus  necessary  for  the  Distillation  of  the  Sorgho,  in  those 
countries  where  the  Still  Retwts  are  already  in  operation. 

1.  A  rasping  mill,  such  as  is  used  in  the  sugar  b^et  factories, 

but  supplied  with  stronger  teeth,  because  of  the  stalks 
of  the  sorgho  being  harder         - 

2.  A  centigrade  thermometer         ....... 

3.  A  saccharometer  ---.---. 

4.  An  alcohol  meter - 

About    -        -        -     $52  00 

Thus  the  principal  expense  will  be  confined  to  the  rasping  mill,  of 
which  the  price  is  moderate,  and  within  .the  reach  of  almost  every  one. 
For  small  cultivators,  a  mill  at  the  price  of  thirty  dollars  to  thirty- 
two  dollars  will  be  sufficient. 

Agricultural  Distilleries. 

The  still  retorts,  with  which  the  cognac  brandies  are  made,  are, 
with  trifling  alterations,  those  which  have  been  used  for  a  hundred 
years  past.  They  consume  much  fuel,  and  perform  their  work  very 
slowly.  Still,  in  spite  of  these  defects,  it  must  be  that  they  offer,  in 
practice,  a  real  superiority  as  to  the  qualities  of  the  brandies,  sipce 
the  merchants,  the  supreme  judges  in  these  matters,  continue  to  prefer 
the  products  of  these  still  retorts  to  those  of  more  perfect  apparatus. 
What  contributes  to  maintain  and  perpetuate  the  existence  of  these 
alembics  in  the  vine  districts,  is  their  simplicity  and  their  low  price — 
advantages  which  cover  up  all  their  defects.  Thus,  to  these  two  cir- 
cumstances, the  distillation  has  taken  a  wide  range  in  the  departments 
of  which  we  speak.  There  is  scarcely  a  single  small  operator  making 
50  to  60  casks  of  wine  who  does  not  purchase  a  little  still,  with  which 
he  converts  his  wine  into  brandy.  These  circumstances  have  urged  us 


316  APPENDIX. 

to  advise  their  general  adoption  ;  but  to  do  away  with  a  portion  of 
the  inconvenience  attendant  upon  their  use,  we  have  caused  the  ap- 
paratus to  undergo  an  improvement  which,  without  making  them  lose 
anything  of  their  primitive  simplicity,  procures  two  important  results 
— an  economy,  more  or  less,  of  fuel ;  and  a  double  production  of 
brandy  in  the  same  space  of  time.  By  this  new  plan  our  still  gives 
brandy  of  20°  to  22°  of  the  first  quality,  while  the  old  way  only 
gives  these  results  after  two  successive  distillations  of  the  same  pro-" 
duct.  The  capacity  of  the  apparatus  is  thus  doubled,  by  an  expense 
which  does  not  exceed  two  hundred  francs  on  an  average. 


Expense  attending  the  purchase  and  erection  of  an  Improved  Agricul- 
tural Distillery. 

1.  A  cucurbite,  or  copper  cauldron,  containing  80  gallons, 

about $92  00 

2.  A  copper  wine  heater,  of  the  same  capacity       -        -  14  00 

3.  A  copper  condenser,  of  150  quarts        -        -        -        -  54  00 

4.  A  wooden  cooler,  bound  with  iron     -        -        -        -  12  00 

5.  A  copper  worm  -  40  00 

6.  A  little  pump,  to  introduce  the  fermented  juice  into  the 

cauldron 8  00 

7.  A  rasping  mill  and  its  apparatus      -  50  00 
B.  Cost  of  erection 20  00 


Total  -.--        $290  00 

With  this  apparatus,  which  should  operate  night  and  day,  according 
to  established  custom,  three  heatings  a  day  of  twenty-four  hours  would 
oe  made,  and  about  240  gallons  of  liquid  distilled  ;  but,  as  our  maize 
and  sorgho  wines  contain  double  the  alcohol  as  those  of  the  beet,  it  is 
about  475  to  500  gallons  that  would  be  worked  up  in  this  lapse  of 
time.  This  quantity  of  fermented  juice  would  give  about  16  per  cent, 
of  sugar ;  an  average  for  the  sorgho  of  about  38  gallons  of  brandy, 
at  50  degrees  centesimal ;  and  for  cor\  about  12  per  cent.,  about  30 
gallons  of  brandy  of  the  same  quality. 


ALCOHOLIZATION.  317 

For  the,  Distillation  of  2,500  Ibs.  of  Sorgho  Stalks,  per  day  of  twenty-four 
hours. 

To  gather  the  stalks,  cleanse  them,  rasp  them,  press  them, 
ferment  the  juice,  and  carry  on  the  retorts,  there  will 

be  needed  an  overseer -        -$060 

An  intelligent  workman 50 

A  laboring  man -  40 

Two  women,  at  Li  francs  each 50 

A  little  boy,  15  or  18  years  old  -        -  ,   -        -        -        -  .30 

Interest  on  the  material  used,  at  10  per  cent.,  calculated  on 
$400,  (the  season  being  about  150  days,)  an  average, 

per  day 20 

Wood  or  coal     ---------  49 

A  hectare,  (about  2i  acres,)  sown  in  sorgho,  should  give  a 
minimum  of  160,000  Ibs.  Troy  of  stripped  stalks.  We 
value  2,500  Ibs.  at -  4  00 


Total  expense  per  day  -----      $6 


265  Ibs.  of  stripped  stalks  would  give,  according  as  the 

had  been  dry  or  wet,  from  50  to  60  per  cent,  of  juice — 
that  is  to  say,  130  to  160  gallons,  which,  added  to  the 
water  necessary  for  liquefying  the  pulps,  would  carry 
the  quantity  of  liquid  to  about  275  gallons,  which  would 
furnish  45  gallons  of  brandy,  at  19  degrees  of  Cartier. 
This  brandy,  by  reason  of  its  quality,  may  be  estimated 
at  about  55  cents  per  gallon  -----  24  00 

Deduct  the  expenses,  $6  90,  profit  per  day  -        -        -        -      17  10 
Multiply  by  150  days,  the  profit  during  the  season  -        -    $2565  00 


Distillery  of  Cognac  Brandies. 

We  have  mentioned  that  the  distillation  of  cognac  brandies  is  done 
with  very  simple  and  cheap  apparatus.    We  give  here  the  description 


318  APPENDIX. 

and  the  price,  to  afford  an  idea  of  what  may  be  done  with  very  little 
capital. 

Cost  of  Purchase  and  Erection  of  the  Distillenes  in   Saimtogne  and 
I'Angoumois. 

A  copper  cauldron  of  about  65  gallons,      ....  $70  00 

A  wash  heater,  of  same  capacity,  of  wood  bound  with  iron,  10  00 

A  copper  worm, 30  00 

A  wooden  cooler,  bound  with  iron, 10  00 

4  wooden  tubs  to  receive  the  products  of  distillation,         .  10  00 

Cost  of  erection, 10  00 


$140  00 

With  this  apparatus,  three  charges  a  day  of  24  hpurs  can  be  made, 
which  is  about  three  barrels  of  46  gallons.  For  fuel,  only  wood  or  peat 
can  be  used.  Peat  charcoal  cannot  be  used  for  this  purpose,  because 
in  burning  it  throws  a  very  large  quantity  of  heat,  and  would  burn, 
on  the  bottom  of  the  cauldron,  the  leaves,  seeds,  and  other  heavy 
matters  which  it  is  the  custom  to  leave  in  the  wine.  These  foreign 
matters,  precipitated  by  their  specific  gravity  to  the  bottom  of  the 
still,  would  be  carbonized,  and  would  give  to  brandy  an  empyreumatic 
taste.  In  spite  of  the  evident  imperfection  of  this  apparatus,  not- 
withstanding the  time  and  fuel  which  they  require,  they  accomplish 
their  work  in  a  satisfactory  manner,  and  give  good  results — results 
which  are  generally  appreciated :  for  all  the  Cognac  brandies  are 
made  with  an  apparatus  of  this  sort.  We,  however,  beg  the  planters  to 
avoid  the  use  of  the  wooden  wine  heater,  because  of  the  loss  of  alcohol 
which  it  would  evidently  suffer  to  be  made  by  the  escape  of  the 
steam  through  the  staves.  It  would  be  well  to  replace  this  with  a 
copper  vessel,  or  at  least  one  of  iron,  which  would  be  more  reasonable 
in  price.  With  this  modification,  this  apparatus  can  be  employed 
wish  profit  in  the  small  manufactories.  They  can  distil  three  hun- 
dred barrels  of  about  sixty-five  gallons  in  the  space  of  a  season  of 
about  five  months,  or  a  hundred  and  fifty  days  in  duration. 


ALCOHOLIZATION.  319 


Price  of  an  improved  distillery  for  operators  on  a  small  scale. 

Copper  cauldron  of  about  55  gallons,  -    $50  00 

Sheet-iron  wine  heater  of  the  same  capacity,  -            -          30  00 

Copper  worm,           -  -      30  00 

Copper  condenser  of  14  gallons,    -  20  00 

A  small  pump,          -  -      10  00 

A  wooden  cooler,  -  -          10  00 

A  rasping  mill  and  its  apparatus,     -  40  00 

Cost  of  erection,    -           -                        -  -           -          30  00 


Total,  -        -      $220  00 

Thus  for  $200  to  $240,  a  small  distillery  could  be  had,  embracing 
all  the  advantages  of  that  which  we  propose  in  another  place,  but 
which  would  do  one  third  less  work,  in  consequence  of  the  reduced 
size  of  the  apparatus. 

Cider  of  the  Sugar  SorgJw,  or  the  Maize,  for   Consumption  and 
for  Commerce. 

Those  who  wish  to  undertake  this  manufacture,  should  give  more 
care  to  the  production  of  these  sorts  of  cider,  in  order  to  give  them 
the  property  of  keeping,  equal  to  that  of  wine. 

Below  we  give  our  formula.  We  can  be  certain  that  it  will  give 
good  results.  We  suppose  the  juice  at  8,  10,  or  12  degrees  of 
density,  and  the  cask  of  a  capacity  of  about  sixty  gallons.  In  this  case 
especially,  the  operator  should  be  provided  with  a  thermometer  and 
saccharometer,  to  weigh  the  juice  and  to  assure  himself  of  their  tem- 
perature before  putting  them  into  fermentation. 


1  kilogramme,  500  grannies  (3  pounds)  of  good  pulverised  argols,  (the 
raw  tartar  scraped  from  ,he  cask  of  either  red  or  white  wine) ;  500 


320  APPENDIX. 

grammes,  equal  to  about  1  Ib.  of  grapes  coarsely  bruised  ;  about  2  Ibs. 
8  oz.,  Troy,  of  fresh  yeast  of  beer,  or  an  equal  quantity  of  good  wine  lees, 
white  or  red,  a  little  putrefied.  When  the  lees  of  wine  are  used  for 
supporting  fermentation,  the  dose  of  raw  tartar  is  lessened,  and 
in  this  case  would  be  reduced  one  kilogramme,  2  Ibs.  8  oz.  only. 

METHOD  OP  MANUFACTURE. 

Put  the  tartar  and  the  rapes  in  a  hundred  quarts  of  juice,  that  you 
carry  to  the  boiling  point,  (in  warm  weather  it  is  not  necessary  to  make 
the  juice  boil.)  After  some  boilings  throw  the  whole  into  a  receptacle 
of  a  capacity  of  65  gallons,  and  finish  by  filling  with  cold  sorgho  juice. 
Before  putting  it  into  the  fermentation,  let  the  temperature  fall  to 
25  or  30  degrees  centigrade.  Assure  yourself  of  the  actual  degree 
by  the  use  of  the  thermometer.  The  next  step  is  to  take  from  the 
vessel  two  or  three  quarts  of  liquid,  add  to  it  the  two.  and  two  third 
pounds  Troy,  of  fresh  yeast  form  a  mixture  of  it  and  throw  it  back 
into  the  vessel.  With  a  stick  stir  it  all  up  together. 

Some  days  after  the  fermentation  shall  have  ceased,  it  is  necessary 
to  draw  of  the  cider,  which  already  will  have  fermented  in  the  large 
vat,  and  place  it  in  the  cask,  which  should  be  entirely  filled. 

A  month,  or  two  months  afterwards,  the  cider  should  be  sealed  up 
and  then  drawn  off  with  care  to  deprive  it  of  its  lees.  Under  such 
conditions  these  ciders  will  be  of  very  excellent  quality,  and  can  be 
preserved  like  white  wines,  to  which  they  bear  considerable  resemblance. 
Like  them  they  will  gain  in  quality  by  becoming  older. 

If  it  is  desired  to  give  these  ciders  a  flavor  which  they  do  not  have, 
there  may  be  introduced  into  the  barrel,  either  before  or  after  the 
fermentation,  two  ounces  of  powdered  iris,*  to  65  gallons ;  or  four 
ounces  of  elder  berries,  or  some  vanilla.  Many  farmers  may  possibly 
find  this  method  of  manufacturing  cider,  complicated  and  embarrass- 
ing. To  boil  a  portion  of  the  juice  before  putting  it  into  fermentation, 
seems  to  them  a  useless  and  superfluous  thing.  However,  I  insist 
upon  this  portion  of  our  recipe,  if  it  is  desirable  to  operate  with  cer- 
tainty. We  are  of  the  opinion,  that  the  same  process  should  be 

*  Fieur  de  lis,  flag  flower. 


ALCOHOLIZATION.  321 

employed  for  wines  in  cool  seasons.  It  is  evident  that  this  trouble 
may  be  avoided  in  the  summer,  because  the  end  which  it  is  proposed 
to  accomplish  by  carrying  the  juices  to  boiling,  is  to  make  them 
ferment  at  25  or  30  degrees,  the  temperature  necessary  for  a  good 
fermentation.  This  degree,  we  repeat  it,  is  especially  necessary  for 
casks  of  a  small  capacity.  The  larger  the  vats  are  made,  the  less 
elevated  a  temperature  is  necessary.  Thus  for  tuns  of  a  capacity 
of  twenty-five  to  thirty  hectolitres,  14  to  15  degrees  would  be  ne- 
cessary for  a  good  fermentation. 

Recipe  for  making  a  very  agreeable  beer  with  the  juice  of  the  sorgho 
or  of  Maize. 

The  juice  is  boiled  with  about  one  Ib.  of  hops  per  twenty-five  gallons, 
or  ten  oz.,  Troy,  according  as  it  is  preferred  to  be  more  or  less  bitter. 
The  juices  are  cooled  to  25  or  30  degrees  centigrade.  Then  they  are 
put  in  contact  with  the  yeast,  (as  we  have  mentioned  for  the  cider,) 
one  Ib.  of  quite  fresh  yeast  to  the  twenty-five  gallons. 

As  soon  as  the  tumultuous  fermentation  is  quiet,  the  liquid  is 
drawn  off,  and  the  second  operation  is  ready  to  proceed  in  the  same 
manner  as  for  the  cider. 

Then  it  is  clarified  with  gelatine,  or  the  white  of  an  egg,  in  the  ordi- 
nary matter. 

As  will  be  seen,  this  process  is  very  simple,  and  nothing  can  be  more 
economical.  In  this  manner  will  be  obtained,  at  a  very  low  price,  a 
fermented  drink  very  healthy  and  agreeable,  which  will  present  the 
appearance  and  flavor  of  the  most  approved  white  beers.  It  suffices 
simply  to  add  to  it  a  little  caramel. 

New  Process  of  Fermentation,  and  preservation  to  an  indefinite  time, 
maturing  after  several 


The  manufacture  of  the  cider  at  a  low  price,  with  a  preservative 
quality,  and  that  is  made  by  age  like  wine,  will  have  so  important 
results  for  the  well  be'ng  and  richness  of  our  agricultural  public,  that 
we  have  decided  to  treat  it  with  all  the  detail  that  it  is  deserving  of. 


APPENDIX. 

We  have  already  mentioned  elsewhere,  that  the  beer  manufacturers 
of  Bavaria  were  in  possession  of  this  secret.  Chance,  aided  by  the 
very  low  and  suitable  temperature  of  the  climate,  seemed  to  have  been 
the  accidental  cause  of  this  interesting  discovery.  Its  practical  ope- 
ration is  very  simple.  It  consists  in  carrying  on  the  fermentation  of 
the  sweet  juice  at  a  temperature  of  nine  or  ten  degrees  centigrade,  in 
shallow  vessels  with  large  surface,  which  are  left  without  any  other 
care  than  from  contact  with  atmospheric  air. 

By  these  processes,  beers,  ciders,  and  wines,  acquire  a  great  preserva- 
tive quality.  They  are  not  at  all  affected  with  the  variations  of  the 
temperature  ;  and  what  is  remarkable,  they  are  as  perfect  some  weeks 
after  fermentation  as  if  they  were  two  or  three  years  old. 

To  thoroughly  comprehend  upon  what  law  these  good  results  depend, 
it  is  indispensable  to  know  the  phenomena  which  occur  in  the  alcoholic 
and  acetic  fermentations.  The  ferments,  which  are  the  producers  of 
the  fermentations,  are  azotized  substances,  in  condition  to  unite  with 
oxygen,  for  which  they  possess  a  great  affinity.  They  have,  further- 
more, the  faculty  of  transmitting  the  action  with  which  they  are 
endowed,  that  is  to  say,  the  fermentation,  to  the  sweet  alcoholic 
liquids  with  which  they  are  placed  in  contact ;  but  the  degrees  of  tem- 
perature necessary  for  these  transformations  are  not  the  same  for  these 
two  different  fluids.  The  degree  the  most  favorable  for  the  conversion 
of  the  alcohol  into  acetic  acid  (vinegar),  by  means  of  a  ferment,  lies 
between  twenty-five  and  thirty  degrees  of  centigrade  ;  at  nine  and  ten 
it  loses  completely  this  faculty,  and  it  is  no  longer  in  action  upon  the 
alcohol.  On  the  contrary,  the  oxidation  of  the  ferment  at  this  low 
temperature,  does  not  experience  any  obstacle — not  more  than  that  of 
the  sweet  liquid  to  which  it  imparts  its  action,  converting  it  into  alcohol 
by  means  of  oxidation  or  fermentation. 

Let  us  now  apply  this  principle,  deduced  from  the  attentive  observa- 
tion of  facts,  to  the  manufacture  of  wines,  as  it  is  practiced.  As  soon 
as  the  expressed  juice  of  the  grapes  comes  in  contact  with  atmospheric 
air,  its  ferment  combines  with  the  oxygen,  and  it  produces  at  the  same 
time  in  the  sweet  liquid  a  like  phenomenon.  A  part  of  the  carbon  of 
the  sugar  unites  with  the  oxygen  of  the  air,  and  escapes  in  the  state 
of  carbonic  acid  gas.  The  other  part  in  converted  into  alcohol.  Thia 


ALCOHOLIZATION.  323 

transformation  is  accomplished  very  rapidly  at  a  temperature  of  twenty- 
five  to  thirty  degrees ;  but  to  deprive  the  ferment  of  its  power  to  pro- 
voke in  the  alcohol,  in  ratio  as  it  is  formed,  the  acetous  fermentation, 
one  is  obliged  to  diminish  the  access  of  the  exterior  air,  by  using  a 
vessel  more  or  less  closed.  The  fermentation  being  completed,  if  one 
should  continue  to  keep  the  wine  at  this  same  temperature,  the  ferment 
would  react  upon  it,  and  produce  acetous  fermentation.  To  avoid  this 
result,  we  hasten  to  fill  up  the  vessels  and  to  place  them  in  a  room  hav- 
ing a  low  temperature.  In  the  meanwhile,  the  ferment  remaining  in  the 
wine,  not  being  able  to  satisfy  its  tendency  to  unite  with  oxygen  when 
contained  in  a  partially  closed  vessel,  continues  to  oxidize  itself  mildly 
by  means  of  the  small  quantity  of  air  which  comes  to  it  through  the 
staves.  This  action  continues  thus  two  or  three  years ;  and  little  by 
little,  in  ratio  as  the  wine  grows  old,  the  ferment  which  completes  its 
oxidation,  falls  into  the  insoluble  condition,  that  is,  the  condition  of 
lees,  at  the  bottom  of  the  receptacle. 

In  the  fermentations  usually  made,  one  is  embarrassed,  then,  by  two 
opposing  difficulties.  On  the  one  hand,  it  would  be  necessary  to  put 
the  ferment  in  contact  with  the  greatest  volume  of  air  possible,  to  make 
it  arrive,  in  the  shortest  space  of  time,  at  a  complete  oxidation,  and  to 
force  it  in  this  manner  to  precipitate  itself  in  the  insoluble  condition 
of  lees.  On  the  other  hand,  this  measure  would  have  the  effect  of  pro- 
voking in  the  liquor  the  acetic  fermentation,  that  is  to  say,  its  conrer- 
tion  into  acetic  acid.  By  the  employment  of  the  new  process,  we  are 
about  to  see  that  in  a  very  rational  manner  we  will  satisfy  these  two 
essential  conditions. 

When  the  sweet  juices  are  put  to  ferment  at  a  temperature  of  nine 
to  ten  degrees  centigrade,  in  shallow  vessels,  exposing  a  large  surface,  • 
where  free  access  of  air  could  be  obtained,  the  complete  oxidation  of 
the  ferment  is  accomplished  in  the  shortest  time,  as  well  as  that  of  the 
sweet  liquid  in  which  it  is  merged.  In  proportion  as  this  action  goes 
on,  the  ferment  falls  to  the  bottom  of  the  vessel  in  the  unsoluble  state, 
the  state  of  lees. 

Fermentation  terminated,  it  is  only  necessary  to  decant  the  wine  sepa- 
rate from  its  lees,  to  have  hasperfect,  as  old  as  it  would  have  become  by 
the  old  process  after  two  or  three  years  of  age.  The  act,  the  phenomenon 


824  APPENDIX. 

which  has  been  accomplished  in  a  wine  which  has  acquired  some  age, 
in  truth  consists  precisely  in  this  complete  precipitation  of  the  ferment 
in  the  insoluble  state  of  lees.  The  only  difference,  we  repeat  it,  which 
exists,  is  that  its  precipitation  is  immediately  accomplished  in  the  new 
process,  at  the  same  time  with  the  conversion  of  the  sugar  into  alcohol ; 
while,  in  the  old  process,  the  deposit  is  only  produced  slowly,  after  a 
long  time,  and  with  the  great  labors  of  repeated  rackings,  etc.  This 
new  method  of  fermentation  is  applied  even  to  red  wines ;  and  what 
facilitates  it  in  practice,  is  that  usually  the  temperature  is  sufficiently 
low  at  the  time  of  the  vintages.  The  ciders  and  the  beers  made 
according  to  these  rules,  are  not  liable  to  sour,  nor  to  turn  in  warm 
seasons — very  important  results,  which  recommend  themselves  to  the 
attention  of  manufacturers. 

As  every  one  will  be  convinced,  the  new  process  is  simple.  It  does 
not  offer  any  difficulty  other  than  that  of  a  choice  of  the  place  capable 
of  being  maintained  at  a  constant  temperature  of  nine  or  ten  degrees 
centigrade.  Vaulted  cellars,  on  the  north  side,  naturally  present  all 
these  conditions.  We  beseech  wine  growers,  manufacturers  of  cider 
and  beer,  to  make  experiments  after  the  manner  we  have  indicated. 
They  can  thus  assure  themselves  if  the  results  by  them  obtained  have 
been  those  which  are  advanced  as  facts  upon  the  testimony  of  the 
celebrated  Liebig.  In  truth,  this  chemist  has  first  made  known  this 
new  process  as  practiced  in  Bavaria.  It  is  applicable  alike  to  all 
fermented  liquor.  The  high  reputation  of  learning  and  responsibility 
which  attaches  itself  to  this  name,  illustrious  in  the  sciences,  assures 
us  that  the  experiments  I  advise  will  not  result  in  disappointment. 

By  way  of  recapitulation,  we  .say  that,  with  the  juice  of  the  sugar 
sorgho  and  the  maize,  we  can,  with  small  expense,  obtain  the  following 
'  products  :  1.  By  distillation,  a  good  brandy,  or  alcohols,  of  the  first 
quality.  2.  Ciders  and  beers,  for  commerce  and  household  use. 
3.  Syrups,  capable  of  profitably  replacing  the  syrups  of  fecula,  and 
for  the  improvement  of  the  wines  in  bad  seasons.  4.  Artificial  wines, 
of  the  nature  of  those  manufactured  by  the  city  of  Cette.  5.  Vine- 
gars, of  a  remarkable  quality,  almost  equal  to  the  best  wine  vinegars. 
G.  The  nourishment  of  cattle  with  the  stalks  used  in  the  press. 
7.  The  manufacture,  from  these  same  stalks  o  other  pulp,  of  a  good 
wrapping  paper,  which  is  naturally  sized. 


M.  VILMORIN'S  KESEAKCHES.  325 


RESEAKCIIES  ON  THE  SUGAR  SORGHO  * 

BY   M.   LOUIS   VILMOBIN. 
Translated  for  the  "  "Working  Farmer,"  by  H.  S.  Olcott. 

THIS  grass,  which  seems  destined  to  occupy  an  important  position  in 
the  list  of  our  industrial  plants,  has,  as  well  as  the  "  Igname  de  la 
Chine,"  been  introduced  by  M.  de  Montigny,  and  was  included  in  the 
same  package  addressed  to  the  Gcographichal  Society.*  We  still 
hesitate  as  to  the  botanical  name  by  which  it  should  be  known.  That 
of  Holcus  sacckaratus  is  manifestly  an  error  ;  not  but  that  the  plant  is 
probably  the  same  as  the  one  previously  known  under  this  title,  but 
because  the  portion  of  this  genus  characterized  by  the  presence  of  a 
little  male  spikelet,  pedimculated,  by  the  side  of  each  fertile  spikelet, 
has  been  rejected  long  since  from  the  Holcus  family,  in  the  genus  An- 
dropogon  or  Sorghum.  In  all  probability,  the  species  Sorghum  vul- 
gare  (Andropogon  Sorghum,)  should  include  iu  the  number  of  its  varie- 
ties, the  plant  in  question,  as  well  as  the  Andropogon,  cafra,  bicolor, 
&c.,  of  Kunth.  A  recent,  and  still  unpublished  work  by  Mr.  Wray, 
which  he  has  had  the  kindness  to  send  me,  notices,  as  growing  on  the 
south-west  coast  of  Caffraria,  about  fifteen  varieties  of  this  plant ;  and 
we  ourselves  recollect,  that  in  a  collection  of  the  grains  of  Abyssinia 
sent  to  the  Museum  in  1840,  by  M.  d'Abadie,  and  which  contained 
about  thirty  species  or  varieties  of  the  sorgho  that  certain  plants  at- 
tracted our  particular  attention  by  the  sugary  taste  of  their  stalks. 
Here,  as  you  see,  are  many  causes  of  confusion,  and,  at  the  same  time, 
the  elements  of  a  critical  work,  with  which  my  colleague,  M.  Green- 
land, is,  at  my  instigation,  occupying  himself. 

I  trust  that  his  researches,  aided  by  the  comparative  cultivation  of 
different  known  varieties,  will  enable  us  to  assign  these  different  varie- 
ties to  the  botanical  types  whence  they  are  derived.  In  the  meanwhile, 
the  name  of  Holcus  Sacckaratus  may  be  provisionally  adopted,  since, 

*Sce  the  "Kevue  Horticole,"  February,  1854,  IMous  Saccharatus ;  July,  1854^ 
"  Ignamc  do  la  Chine ;"  "Bulletin  du  Cornice  Agricolo  de  Toulon,"  1853,  "Liste  de 
1'euvoi  Moutigny  " 


82n  APPENDIX. 

although  evidently  inexact  as  to  generic  characteristics,  it  has  the  ad- 
vantage of  being  known,  and  of  never  having  been  applied  to  other 
plants. 

The  plant  on  which  were  undertaken  the  experiments  made  at  Flor- 
ence in  176G,  by  Pietro  Arduiuo,  for  the  manufacture  of  sugar,  did, 
very  probably,  belong  to  the  same  species,  but  must  have  been  another 
variety,  since  he  describes  the  seeds  as  being  of  a  clear  brown,  whilst 
those  of  this  newly  imported  plant  are  black,  and  in  appearance  en- 
tirely identical  with  the  black  sorgho  of  the  older  collections. 

The  sugar  sorgho  is  a  tall  and  slender  plant,  attaining  the  height  of 
two  or  three  metres,  or  more,  in  rich  ground  (a  metre  is  thirty-nine 
inches. — 0.)  The  stalks  are  straight  and  smooth,  the  leaves  flexible 
and  drooping ;  in  appearance  it  is  much  the  same  as  the  Indian  corn, 
but  much  more  graceful.  It  ordinarily  forms  a  top,  composed  of  eight 
or  ten  separate  stems,  each  terminated  by  a  tuft  of  conical  shape,  and 
covered  with  blossoms,  green  at  first,  then  passing  through  different 
shades  of  violet,  to  acquire  a  deep  purple  hue  when  completely  matured. 

It  is  probably  an  annual,  and  its  cultivation  and  time  for  ripening 
agree  with  corn  (maize).  In  the  climate  of  Paris  it  must  be  sown  as 
soon  as  the  ground  is  warm,  that  is,  at  the  time  for  the  first  sowing  of 
beans  (haricots)  ;  the  maturity  of  the  seeds  will  be  more  probable,  if 
the  plant  has  been  grown  in  a  sheltered  nursery,  or,  better  still,  in  a 
hot-bed ;  but,  for  the  extraction  of  sugar,  it  will  be  sufficient  to  sow  it 
in  the  open  field,  provided  the  soil  be  light  and  moderately  warm. 

The  product  of  the  sugar  sorgho,  consists  in  the  sap  contained  in 
abundance  in  the  pith  of  the  stalks,  which  furnishes  three  important 
products  :  sugar,  alcohol,  and  a  fermented  beverage  similar  to  cider.* 

In  truth,  this  juice,  when  one  has  obtained  it  with  care,  in  a  small 
quantity,  by  depriving  the  cane  of  its  green  envelope,  is  nearly  color- 
less, and  contains,  so  to  speak,  simply  water  and  sugar.  Its  density 
varies  from  1-050  to  1-075,  and  the  proportion  of  sugar  from  ten  to 
sixteen  per  cent.  I  include  here  the  total  of  the  two  sugars,  crystal- 
livable  and  uncrystallizable,  of  which  the  latter  sometimes  makes  a 
third  of  their  mixture.  It  is  to  this  quantity  of  uncrystallizable  sugar, 

»  See  the  "  Moniteur  Universel'1  of  13th  NovemU-r,  1854;  " Keveue Horticole,"  16tb 
November;  "Journal  d'Agriculture  Pratique."  '-'wb  November. 


M.  VILMOEIN'S  RESEARCHES.  827 

that  the  juice  of  the  sorgho  owes  the  readiness  with  which  it  ferments, 
and  the  large  product  in  alcohol  which  it  gives,  compared  to  the 
amount  of  sugar  observed  directly  in  the  saccharometer. 

Considered  in  relation  to  the  manufacture  of  sugar,  the  sorgho  seems 
to  me  to  have  small  chance  of  success  in  the  northern  and  central  por- 
tions of  France— that  is  to  say,  in  the  tracts  of  country  where  the  cul- 
ture of  the  beet  is  entirely  successful.  The  strong  proportion  of  un- 
crystallizable  sugar  which  it  contains,  is  not  merely  so  much  loss  in 
this  manufacture,  but  it  becomes  an  impediment  to  the  extraction  of 
the  other  sugar.  It  is  not,  however,  because  the  products  of  the  sorgho 
are  poor  or  difficult  to  be  obtained,  but  simply  that  their  nature  ren- 
ders them,  under  similar  circumstances,  more  prolific  in  alcohol  than 
sugar ;  and  if,  in  the  present  state  of  the  market,  it  is  profitable  tc 
distil  the  beet  root,  which,  by  the  most  skillful  processes,  does  not 
afford  an  amount  of  alcohol  correspondent  to  the  proportion  of  sugar 
which  may  be  extracted,  how  much  more  potent  reasons  are  there  in 
favor  of  the  sorgho,  whose  juice  yields  more  than  the  equivalent  of  its 
extractable  sugar. 

It  will  be  the  same  if  we  consider  the  sorgho  in  those  warmer  regions 
where  the  beet  cannot  grow  in  competition  with  it.  Some  experiments 
made  with  the  stalks  of  sorghos  cultivated  in  Algeria,  sent  to  me  by 
M.  Peschard  of  Ambly,  Mayor  of  Phillipeville,  produced  sugar  decidedly 
superior  in  quality  to  that  yielded  by  my  plants  raised  in  the  environs 
of  Paris.  The  long  time  occupied  in  the  transmission  of  the  package, 
caused  a  partial  change  to  occur,  which  prevented  my  determining 
with  accuracy  the  comparative  values  of  the  two  kinds  of  sugar  in 
the  sorgho  of  Algeria  ;  but  the  nature  of  the  sap,  as  well  as  the  obser- 
vations communicated  to  me  by  Mr.  Wray — formerly  a  planter  in 
Natal,  Caffraria — lead  me  to  think  that  the  proportion  of  crystalliz- 
able  sugar  will  at  once  become  greater  where  the  climate  permits  the 
sorgho  to  attain  a  complete  maturity.  This  plant,  therefore,  will  fill, 
in  the  production  of  sugar,  the  void  existing  between  the  tropical 
regions — alone  suitable  for  the  cultivation  of  the  sugar  cane — and  the 
fourty-fourth  parallel,  which  seems  to  be  the  southern  boundary  to  the 
profitable  cultivation  of  the  bejet  root.  Beyond  this  limit,  the  latter 


328  APPENDIX. 

will  probably  excel  in  the  production  of  sugar,  while  the  sorgho,  par- 
ticularly in  the  provinces  of  the  west  and  northwest  of  France,  will  gain 
decidedly  upon  it  in  the  yield  of  alcohol. 

.As  a  sugar  producing  plaiit,  the  sorgho  will  offer  as  a  recommenda- 
tion, the  ease  of  its  culture  and  treatment  of  its  sap.  Its  raw  product 
is  probably  greater  than  the  sugar  cane  in  countries  such  as  Louisiana, 
where  the  latter  is  known  as  an  annual  plant.  Like  the  cane,  it  fur- 
nishes in  its  leaves  and  tops  an  abundance  of  excellent  green  fodder. 
Finally,  its  molasses,  similar  to  that  from  the  cane,  may  be  used  in  the 
manufacture  of  rum,  and  the  residuum  for  a  similar  but  inferior  liquor. 
The  great  difficulties  to  be  met  are,  the  preservation  of  the  stalks,  and 
especially  the  short  season  suitable  for  its  manufacture.  But  beyond 
these  geographical  limits  which  have  been  heretofore  indicated,  the 
warmth  of  climate  willl  allow  of  successive  plantings.  I  am  told  by 
Mr.  Wray,  of  whom  previous  mention  has  been  made,  that  in  the 
vicinity  of  Natal,  the  Zulu-Kaffirs  keep  the  stalks  sound  for  a  long 
time  by  pitting  them,  as  there  the  ground  is  warm  and  moist. 

We  have  just  seen  tlat  for  the  manufacture  of  alcohol  the  sorgho 
had  the  advantage  of  large  proportions  of  uncrystallizable  sugar,  which 
in  sugar  making  is  entirely  lost.  Another  advantage  is  the  purity  of 
its  sap,  which  accounts  for  the  fact  that  the  alcohol  made  from  it,  as 
also  brandy  of  first  quality,  is  sufficiently  pure  for  immediate  use. 

Alcohol,  distilled  but  once,  and  that  imperfectly,  which  I  obtained 
with  very  incomplete  laboratory  apparatus,  was  absolutely  deprived 
of  all  foreign  flavors,  and  even  my  finest  liquors,  ranging  from  forty  to 
fifty  per  cent.,  have  quite  an  agreeable  taste,  similar  to  our  noyau,  and 
would  doubtless  be  useful  to  take  precedence  over  the  similar  products 
of  the  beet.  When  pure,  their  taste  is  infinitely  less  coarse  and  dis- 
agreeable than  that  of  rum  ;  after  becoming  old  they  would  be  very 
superior. 

I  have  said  above,  that,  besides  alcohol  and  sugar,  the  sap  of  the 
sugar  sorgho  might  furnish  a  drink  similar  to  cider.  In  an  article  in- 
serted in  the  "  Moniteur,"  November  13,  1854,  I  essayed  to  draw 
attention  to  the  advantages  to  be  obtained  from  the  manufacture  of 
these  fermented  drinks.  This  question  is  still  entirely  new,  and  on 


M.  VILMOFJN'S  RESEARCHES.  321) 

can  scarcely  tell  to  what  it  may  lead  ;  but  after  the  results  I  Lave  ar- 
rived at  in  my  experiments,  made  under  most  unfavorable  circum- 
stances, I  can  but  think  that  it  has  a  profitable  future. 

The  cultivation  of  the  sorgho  will  probably  not  be  difficult,  as  it 
closely  resembles  that  of  maize  and  some  millets.  The  obstacles  to  be 
encountered  will  probably  arise  in  giving  it  its  place  in  the  rotation ; 
in  this  repect,  there  is,  I  think,  more  to  lose  than  gain  in  its  introduc- 
tion, while  the  beet  has  constantly  increased  the  aggregate  yield  of  the 
districts  where  it  has  been  introduced.  The  sorgho,  as  well  as  maize, 
is  thought  to  be  an  exhausting  plant ;  the  experiments  I  have  hitherto 
made,  have  been  too  few  to  allow  my  deciding  on  it  from  personal  ob- 
servation, but  I  entirely  coincide  with  the  established  opinion  on  the 
subject,  and  certainly  the  species  to  which  this  plant  belongs,  makes  it 
improbable  that  it  could  fill  the  same  place  in  a  rotation  as  the  beet. 

The  value  of  produce  that  we  may  expect  from  the  sorgho  is  diffi- 
cult to  determine  in  this  state  of  the  question  ;  my  experiments  have 
been  made  on  quite  a  small  scale.  The  following  is  the  result  furnished 
to  me,  and  the  deductions  we  may  draw  from  it.  The  small  plot  of 
sorgho  which  I  have  cultivated  open  field  at  Verrieres,  in  a  sandy  soil 
of  medium  quality,  was  harvested  30th  October.  We  gathered  from 
it  as  often  as  we  needed  it  for  the  different  laboratory  experiments, 
besides  which  one  corner  was  much  stunted  by  the  shade  of  a  large 
tree,  and  another  spot  was  reserved  for  a  comparison  between  topped 
plants  and  others  on  which  we  had  left  the  tufts.  The  area  cut  the 
30th  of  October,  was  58m40,  the  yield  was  (weighed  the  day  after 
cutting), 

Stalks  and  leaves,         -  -        285k400 

Stalks,  without  leaves  or  heads,  -        179k250 

The  lot  was  so  irregular,  and  so  badly  covered,  that  I  wished  to 
make  another  trial ;  so  in  the  part  farthest  removed  from  the  trees  1 
measured  a  square  plot,  where,  although  the  plants  were  not  very  tall, 
they  were  of  average  growth  and  covered  the  ground  well.  The 
dimensions  of  the  square  were  about  5m32,  the  yield  (weighed  the  day 
after  cutting)  was, 

Stalks  and  leaves,          -  -        41kllO 

Stalks,  without  leaves  or  heads,  -  -        26k230 


830  APPENDIX. 

I  think  that  this  latter  portion  may  be  considered  as  representing 
a  good  average  crop,  equal  to  forty-five  thousand  kilogrammes  of 
beets  to  the  hectare.  It  is  on  these  figures  that  I  institute  my  com- 
parisons. 

For  this  plot  the  plants  had  been  raised  in  a  bed,  and  the  plantation 
was  made  during  the  early  part  of  May. 

In  another  plot,  which  was  sown  broadcast  on  the  18th  May,  merely 
a  few  blades  made  their  appearance.  They  had  greatly  needed  weed- 
ing during  the  early  stages  of  their  growth,  and  had  been,  in  conse- 
quence, much  retarded.  The  yield  was  on  a  basis  of  38,000  kilo- 
grammes to  the  hectare. 

A  third  plot,  raised  in  a  bed,  and  planted  in  the  garden,  was  not 
weighed  ;  it  was  gathered  from  time  to  time,  as  wanted  in  the  experi- 
ments for  determining  the  periods  of  the  development  of  the  sugar  ; 
but  I  do  not  fear  to  deceive  myself,  in  rating  its  yield,  according  to 
the  appearance  of  the  plants,  at  about  half  that  of  the  5m  32  lot  before 
mentioned. 

I  have  obtained  as  a  result  from  the  stalks,  without  leaves,  an 
amount  of  juice  equal  to  fifty  or  sixty  per  cent.  Of  course,  if  the 
tops  are  closely  trimmed,  or  if  we  experiment  simply  on  the  selected 
stalks,  a  much  larger  proportion  will  be  obtained.  With  proper  ma- 
chinery it  should  easily  touch  seventy  per  cent.  In  the  trial  of 
October  30th,  (made  with  the  village  cider  press,)  on  215  kilogrammes 
of  stalks,  large  and  small,  from  which  only  the  tops  and  last  joints  had 
been  trimmed,  106  litres  of  juice  were  obtained,  showing  a  density  of 
1-052.  I  calculate  at  least  fifteen  litres  as  lost  in  dampening  the  sur- 
faces of  the  stone  and  press. 

I  have  none  of  the  sugar  from  the  sorgho  ;  have  simply  made  some 
trials  with  the  saccharoineter,  decided  usually  by  an  evaporation  and 
a  comparison  with  alcohol. 

The  following  is  the  proportion  of  sugar  in  the  sap  of  the  plant 
gathered  at  Yerrieres : 

13th  Oct.,   1853,       -  -        10-04  for  100  of  sap. 

28th  Nov.,  1853,  -  13-08 

Do.        do.,  second  trial,      -        14-06 


M.  VILMORIN'S  RESEARCHES.  331 

13th  Oct.,   1854,          -        -        -    10-14  without  inversion* 

)  of  which  was  uncrystal- 
14th  Nov.,  1854,  -    16  [•  lizable  llf. 

)  crystallizable  sugar  4|. 

The  amount  of  alcohol  has  been  determined  by  a  direct  fermentation. 
The  following  are  the  figures  in  the  order  of  trial : 

The  figures  express  the  absolute  yield  of  alcohol  per  litre,  in  the 
cubic  centimetres. 

Sorgho  at  Verrieres : 

28th  Sept.,  1854,  -  41. 

4th  Oct.,  1854,      ...        -  54. 
Sorgho  of  Algiers : 

1st  fermentation,  17th  Oct.,  1854,    -  70.      )  by  the  Salleron 

2nd  trial  some  hours  afterwards    -  74.      )       apparatus. 

70-52  on  distill.  1  litre  20. 

2nd  fermentation  18th  Oct.,  1854,    -  79-52 
Sorgho  at  Yerrieres : 

20th  Oct.,        ...  .  72-51  on  distillation  1  litre 

16th  Nov., 63-26  tops  removed. 

17th  Nov.,        -        ...  60-67  tops  not  removed. 

If  we  withdraw  from  this  table  the  yield  of  the  28th  September, 
which  applies  to  plants  evidently  too  young,  and  the  four  others  relat- 
ing to  the  Algerian  sorgho,  I  find  as  an  average  for  our  climate,  6.3 
per  cent,  in  value,  or  63  cubic  centimetres  of  alcohol  to  the  litre  of 
sap  :  an  amount  which,  as  one  may  see,  is  very  encouraging,  especially 
if  we  consider  the  excellent  quality  of  the  products. 

Establishing  our  calculation  for  yield  on  the  basis  previously  given, 
we  have  for  a  hectare  planted  with  sorgho  : 

Stalks  and  leaves,        ...        -  77-270k. 

Stalks  alone, 49-300 

Sap  at  55  per  cent,  of  the  weight  of  the 

27-115  lit.  or  271  hectols. 


*  Inversion.  This  word  is  left  in  the  original,  because  we  cannot  translate  it  liter- 
ally, and  make  proper  sense.  It  means,  in  this  case,  without  the  addition  of  foreign 
matter. 


332  APPENDIX. 

Sugar,  calculated  at  8  per  cent,  of  sap,        2-169k. 
Absolute  alcohol,  calculated  at  (r3  per 

cent,  of  the  sap,        -        -        -          1-708  lit. 
The  best  will  give,  in  proportion  with  these  figures  : 
Roots,  in  weight  per  hectare,  -----        46-000 
Sap,  at  80  per  cent,  of  weight  of  roots        -        -        -    36-000 
Sugar,  at  6  per  cent,  of  sap,     -        -  -  2-160 

Pure  alcohol,  at  3  per  cent,  of  the  bee;;        -        -        -     1-350  lit 

The  calculation  of  eight  per  cent.,  on  which  I  base  the  relative  pro- 
portion of  sugar  in  the  sorgho,  may  be  thought  too  moderate  ;  but  it 
here  refers  simply  to  the  extractable  and  crystallizable  sugar,  and  I  do 
not  think  I  have  valued  it  at  too  low  a  figure.  If  it  were  proposed  to 
establish  a  comparison  between  the  sorgho,  and  the  sugar  cane  of  more 
southern  countries,  I  am  convinced  that  the  sum  of  products  in  sorgho 
should  be  much  raised  ;  but  the  conditions  necessary  for  such  com- 
parison are  not  in  my  possession,  nor  for  those  which  might  be  made 
between  the  same  plant  and  the  grape  vine,  topinambour,  fve  grains, 
and  even  the  asphodel,  in  respect  to  the  production  of  alcohol. 

After  having  examined  the  advantage  that  the  general  cultivation 
of  the  sorgho  presents,  and  the  considerations  which  favor  the  adoption 
of  this  plant,  it  remains  to  me  to  cite  some  of  the  results  yielded  by 
our  first  experiments,  and  which  may  be  suggestive  for  further  studies, 
or  as  an  index  for  the  first  attempts  in  manufacture. 

One  of  the  first  points  that  I  have  sought  to  determine,  without 
being  able  to  do  so  in  an  entirely  satisfactory  manner,  was  to  know  at 
what  epoch  in  the  growth  the  stalks  commenced  secreting  sugar,  and, 
as  a  consequence,  at  what  moment  to  commence  to  manufacture.  It 
seemed  to  me  that  this  period  coincided  with  the  development  of  the 
head ;  but  the  proportion  of  sugar  in  the  stalk  continues  on  the  in- 
crease until  the  grain  is  in  the  milk.  In  a  plant  in  flower,  I  have  re- 
marked, that  the  richness  in  sugar  diminished  between  the  joints  in 
proportion  as  we  go  higher  up  the  stalk,  and  that,  in  like  manner,  the 
lower  portion  of  each  joint  was  younger  and  less  sugary  than  the  upper 
part.  In  this  condition,  because  of  the  small  dimensions  and  hardness 
of  the  smaller  joints,  it  is  the  central  portion  of  the  stalk  which  is 
found  to  be  the  most  rich.  I  suppose — without  having  been  able  to 


M.  VILMORIN'S  RESEARCHES.  333 

decide  certainly — that  at  a  later  stage  of  growth  the  lower  joints  be- 
come poorer,  or,  at  least,  if  the  sap  does  not  become  poorer  in  quality, 
it  is  manifestly  less  abundant. 

The  ripening  of  the  seeds  did  not  seem,  at  least  in  our  climate,  to 
diminish  the  yield  of  sugar  ;  but  as  this  does  not  happen  with  us  until 
the  extreme  limits  of  the  season,  and  as  our  plants  have  been  contin- 
ually enriching  themselves  in  proportion  as  their  growth  continues, 
the  influence  of  the  ripening  in  these  phenomena  cannot  be  determined. 
It  is  only  in  these  countries  where  the  plant  can  attain  the  maturity 
of  its  grains  in  a  continuously  warm  season,  that  the  matter  can  be 
definitely  settled.  According  to  the  report  addressed  by  M.  de  Beau- 
regard  to  the  Chamber  of  Toulon,  the  ripening  did  not  have  with  his 
plants  an  injurious  effect,  and  he  considered  the  seed  and  the  sugar  as 
two  products  which  may  be  obtained  conjointly  ;  then,  again,  accord- 
ing to  Mr.  Wray,  the  Zulu-Kaffirs  are  accustomed  to  break  off,  by 
a  slight  rapid  movement,  the  tuft  of  their  plants  at  the  time  it  makes 
its  appearance,  and  thus  increase  the  saccharine  quality  of  the  stalks. 
This  matter,  however,  is  of  no  importance  in  France,  where  the  ripen- 
ing does  not  ensue  sufficiently  early  to  prove  at  all  unfavorable. 

The  saltish  taste  of  the  very  lowest  knots  has  led  me  to  think  that, 
in  some  cases,  the  salts  might  accumulate  in  predominance ;  I  have 
had  the  intention,  but  not  the  opportunity,  to  satisfy  myself  of  this  by 
incinerations.  The  fact  would  be  in  conformity  to  analogies,  and  de- 
serves attention.  Of  no  importance  as  to  the  manufacture  of  alcohol, 
it  still  would  have  very  much  in  that  of  sugar. 

The  ability  to  determine  as  to  the  richness  in  sugar  of  the  juice,  is 
quite  limited  when  recourse  is  not  had  to  a  polarizing  saccharometer, 
and,  even  with  this  instrument,  inversion  is  absolutely  necessary  for 
the  juice  of  the  sorgho,  which  always  contains  a  greater  or  less  pro- 
portion of  poorly  made  or  uncrystallizable  sugar.  However,  if  this 
instrument  cannot  be  made  use  of,  a  tolerably  good  approximation 
may  be  arrived  at  by  the  following  process  :  After  having  determined 
the  density  of  the  sap  as  it  passes  from  the  press,  it  should  be  caused 
to  ferment  with  care,  and  as  completely  as  possible,  at  a  temperature  of 
25  to  30  degrees,  by  the  use  of  a  very  small  quantity  of  the  yeast  from 
beer  ;  the  original  volume,  baving  been  previously  marked  by  a  guage. 


334  APPEND!  A". 

should  be  renewed,  after  the  fermentation,  by  pure  (or  better,  distilled) 
water  ;  then  a  new  volume,  measured,  of  the  fermented  liquid  should 
be  reduced  to  one  half  by  evaporation,  in  order  to  abstract  all  the 
alcohol,  and  again  brought  to  its  original  bulk  by  means  of  water. 
The  areometrical  quality  of  this  liquid,  taken  after  the  above  pre- 
cautions, will  be  very  nearly  a  true  indication  to  the  amount  of  cor- 
rection to  give  to  the  density  of  the  juice,  provided  always  that  it 
shows  its  amount  of  sugar.  We  should,  at  the  same  time,  determine, 
and  separately,  the  correction  due  to  the  small  amount  of  yeast 
employed. 

The  process  which  consists  in  evaporating  the  sap  to  dryness  at  a 
temperature  of  100°  to  110°,  in  taking  it  back  to  the  alcohol  at  85°, 
and  again  evaporating  (a  simplification  of  the  Peligo  process)  may,  in 
many  cases,  give  results  with  sufficient  exactness  for  general  practice. 

To  know  the  amount  of  alcohol  which  the  sap  can  furnish,  no  other 
method  has  succeeded  better  with  me  than  the  direct  experiment.  In 
operating  upon  a  litre,  and  even  a  half  litre,  of  sap,  at  a  constant  tem- 
perature of  30°,  with  the  addition  of  eight  to  ten  grammes  of  yeast  of 
new  beer  to  the  litre  of  sap,  I  have  frequently  had,  in  eighteen  or 
twenty  hours,  fermentations  sufficiently  marked  to  cause  the  density 
of  the  sap  to  fall,  in  this  space  of  time,  from  1-060  to  0-997.  These 
figures  at  once  show  how  easily  the  sap  of  the  sorgho  ferments,  and 
how  small  amounts  of  foreign  matters  it  contains,  since,  during  a 
similar  experiment,  the  juice  of  the  beet  root  never  goes  lower  than 
1-007  or  1-008.  This  fermentation  finished,  the  alcohol  is  determined, 
either  by  means  of  Salleron's  apparatus,  or,  what  I  consider  more 
reliable,  by  reducing  a  litre  or  half  a  litre  of  liquid.  I  have  always 
found  the  results  obtained  by  this  latter  process  perfectly  concordant, 
and  I  think  we  may  look  upon  them  as  exact.  If  one  has  kept  a 
record  of  the  different  volumes,  as  is  done  in  the  Sallerou  apparatus, 
the  residuum  after  evaporation,  are  sufficient,  as  we  have  shown,  to 
determine  the  influence  which  the  foreign  matters  in  the  sugar  exert 
upon  the  original  density  of  the  sap,  and  thus  we  obtain  two  calcu- 
lations which  prove  one  another. 

The  extraction  of  the  sap  does  not  present  any  difficulties.  When 
it  is  proposed  to  determine  its  proportion,  we  may  employ  either  of 


M.  VILMOBIN'S  UESEAUCHES.  335 

two  methods  :  1st.  Cut  the  stalks  into  small  pieces,  chop  coarsely  or 
abrade,  press  them  ;  this  process  gives  us  figures  which  approximate 
to  the  yield  in  manufacture^  2nd.  Cut  into  small  pieces,  wash  and 
dry  ;  this  gives  the  exact  figures  by  comparison. 

The  extraction  of  the  juices  for  their  treatment,  may  be  accom- 
plished in  many  ways.  In  my  first  trials  I  made  use  of  a  small 
rolling  mill  (laminoir)  of  which  the  work  was  so  imperfect  that  I  was 
compelled  to  repass  the  stalks  under  a  small  percussion  press  of 
sufficient  power.  In  this  way  I  obtained  from  fifty-five  to  sixty  per 
cent,  of  juice,  in  proportion  as  I  used  canes  more  or  less  alike  or  hard. 
In  another  experiment  I  made  use  of  a  cider  mill  and  an  ordinary 
press.  The  action  of  the  rollers  upon  the  stalks  had  liberated  much 
chlorophyl,  and  my  sap  flowed  out  much  charged  with  green  feculous 
matter ;  the  yield  was  the  same  as  above  shown  ;  but  a  considerable 
loss  (about  fifteen  per  cent.)  due  to  the  size  of  the  apparatus  as  com- 
pared with  thje  mass  of  matter  on  which  I  operated,  carried  these 
figures  higher  than  they  should  have  gone.  Without  doubt,  the  use 
of  more  powerful  methods,  such  as  crushing  or  hydraulic  presses,  as  at 
present  successfully  employed  with  sugar  cane,  would  give  greater 
results,  and  such  as  would  quickly  meet  the  considerable  expense  of 
commencing  them.  In  those  cases  where  only  the  distillation  is  looked 
to,  maceration  might  perhaps  be  resorted  to  with  success,  as  a  very 
economical  method,  as  well  as  the  process  which  consisted  in  causing 
the  direct  fermentation  of  the  coarsely  crushed  canes.  This  latter 
process  would,  however,  have  greater  probabilities  of  success,  as  will 
be  shown,  the  crushed  stalks  constitute  an  excellent  ferment  for  the 
juice  of  the  sorgho. 

In  the  laboratory  experiments  I  have  always  used  as  a  ferment  the 
yeast  of  beer,  because  this  is  the  most  rapid  and  the  best  process  for 
quantitative  experiments ;  it,  however,  has  the  inconvenience  of  im- 
parting a  disagreeable  odor  to  the  products  of  distillation .  However, 
the  number  of  substances  which  are  adequate  to  inducing  fermentation 
is  almost  illimitable.  The  Count  de  Beauregard,  who  has  made,  in  the 
neighborhood  of  Toulon,  experiments  on  an  extensive  scale,  employed 
with  complete  success — according  to  what  I  have  been  told'  by  Dr. 
Turrel — the  crushed  stalks  of  the  sorgho  itself  to  induce  the  fer- 
mentation of  the  juice. 


836  APPENDIX. 

All  the  fruits  may  be  used  for  the  same  purpose  ;  a  bunch  of  grapes 
crushed  between  the  hands  is  sufficient  to  ferment  a  large  vat  of  several 
hectolitres,  the  juice  of  the  sorgho  containing  naturally  a  sufficiency  of 
azotized  matters  to  cause  fermentation  to  continue  naturally  after  be- 
ing thus  started  ;  a  ferment  of  paste,  made  of  the  inner  part  of  bread, 
may  take  the  place  of  the  yeast.  In  the  case  where  juice  largely 
charged  with  sugar  and  derived  from  very  dry  stalks,  (and  of  course 
almost  deprived  of  those  younger  parts  which  yield  nitrogenous  mat- 
ter) experience  a  too  mild  or  incomplete  fermentation,  a  little  of  the 
flour  of  French  rice  will  be  sufficient  to  give  it  all  the  activity  desired. 

Once  let  the  movement  be  established,  it  is  probable  that  the  method 
of  continuous  fermentation  so  happily  applied  to  the  distillation  of  the 
beet,  and  which  consists  in  the  constant  introduction  of  a  fine  thread- 
like stream  of  sweetened  liquid  into  a  vat  where  fermentation  is  already 
active,  might  be  adopted,  and  thus  dispense  with  all  anxiety  as  to  the 
procuring  of  different  ferments.  This  method  has  the  additional  ad- 
vantage, that  it  can  perfectly  regulate  the  fermentation,  and  thus  obvi- 
ate, as  much  as  it  is  possible,  the  formation  of  acetic  acid. 

It  is  requisite,  in  order  that  the  fermentation  may  be  regular,  that 
the  temperature  should  be  maintained  between  18°  to  25°  centigrade. 
This  precaution  is  especially  necessary  in  the  small  experiments  of  the 
laboratory,  for  which  a  constant  temperature  of  25°  has  always  suc- 
ceeded with  me.  I  have  made  mention  of  a  process  of  purification  based 
upon  the  use  of  oak-wood  shavings,  and  which  entirely  destroys  the 
taste  of  the  green  matter  arising  from  the  crushing  of  the  bark  of  the 
stalks  by  the  rollers.*  I  have  observed  since  then,  that,  if  they  are 
used  in  excess,  either  by  too  prolonged  an  ebullition  or  by  increasing 
the  proportion  of  shavings,  (which  should  never  exceed  200  grammes 
to  the  hectolitre  of  juice,)  this  method  actually  opposes  the  fermenta- 
tion. We  should  therefore  give  some  attention  to  the  proper  method 
of  employing  it,  the  more,  because  for  distillation  the  juices  obtained 
from  the  rolling  mill  are  30  clear  as  not  to  have  a  disagreeable  flavor, 
even  when  they  are  put  to  ferment  in  their  raw  state.  Perhaps  other 
processes,  such  as  the  use  of  white  wood  and  the  coal  of  wood,  might 
be  successfully  employed  for  the  defecation  or  clarification  of  juices. 

*  See  Journal  d1  Agriculture  Pratique,  (No.  of  25th  November,  p.  420.) 


M.  VILMORIN'S  RESEARCHES.  337 

Lime,  which  perfectly  clarifies  the  juice,  cannot  be  applied  to  distilla- 
tion, because  of  the  disagreeable  odors  which  it  develops 

Relative  to  the  cultivation,  there  will  remain  certain  points  to  be 
decided  upon.  According  to  the  observation  communicated  to  me  by 
M.  Ponsart,  the  grain  requires,  for  perfect  germination,  to  be  very 
slightly  covered,  which  requires  some  care  in  the  field  sowings  ;  for,  iu 
this  case,  a  large  number  of  seeds  will  be  lost,  because  of  the  fact  that 
the  harrow  covers  them  with  too  thick  a  layer  of  earth.  This  explains, 
perhaps,  that  in  the  countries  where  they  cultivate  the  common  sorgho, 
it  is  customary  to  use  one  decalitre  to  one  and  a  half  decalitres  for  the 
drill  crops,  and  from  five  to  six  decalitres  for  broadcast  sowing  ;  whilst 
the  enumeration  of  the  seeds  contained  in  a  kilogramme  would  show, 
by  calculation,  a  quantity  of  grains  five  or  six  times  less. 

The  plants  should  necessarily  be  cultivated  in  drills,  in  order  to  give 
them  thorough  cultivation  and  proper  care  ;  these  are  indispensable, 
especially  during  the  infancy  of  the  plant,' which  is  sometimes  quite 
protracted.  The  plan  proposed  by  M.  Ledocte — to  associate  with 
the  plant  we  cultivate,  when  it  germinates  or  develops  slowly,  another 
of  rapid  growth,  such  as  colza,  lettuce  &c.,  so  that  in  a  very  short  time 
the  eye  of  the  farmer  may  distinguish  the  lines  or  plots  occupied  by 
the  plants  which  his  cultivator  should  spare — seems  worthy  of  being 
recommended  in  this  case  ;  because  the  fine  sprouts  of  the  sorgho, 
being  confounded  with  grass,  renders  the  operation  of  the  first  cultiva- 
tion very  difficult.  The  layering  of  the  branches  proposed  by  M. 
Heuze,  seems  to  me  but  slightly  practicable.  It  is  only  in  September 
that  they  have  become  strong  enough  to  be  layered,  and  the  plants 
thus  procured  would  not  attain,  even  in  a  year's  time,  a  development 
which  would  warrant  their  cultivation.  I  shall  have  an  analogous 
observation  to  make  on  the  separation  of  the  plant  raised  in  a  bed  ; 
by  decreasing  the  branching,  this  process  would  oblige  one  to  plant 
closer,  which  would  compensate  for  all  the  advantages  to  be  derived 
from  it. 

The  experiments  relative  to  the  preservation  of  the  stalks,  merit 

above  all  to  be  followed  with  attention.    I  have  heretbtore  noticed  the 

use  of  covered  pits  in  Caff'raria  ;  a  commencement  of  drying  by  the 

sun,  having  the  effect  of  concentrating  the  sap  in  the  stalks,  might. 

15 


338  APPENDIX. 

make  their  preservation  more  certain  and  easy ;  finally,  the  prepara- 
tion of  small  clippings  artificially  dried,  might  perhaps  pay  for  the  extra 
expenses  which  their  preparation  would  cause,  by  enabling  us  to  manu- 
facture throughout  the  entire  year.  All  the  questions  which  attach 
themselves  to  this  order  of  facts,  are  so  much  more  important  to  study, 
because  if  they  obtain  a  good  solution,  they  would  result  in  remedying 
what  may  at  present  be  regarded  as  the  weakest  point  of  the  sorgho^ 
the  preservation  of  the  stalks  during  a  sufficiently  long  time  to  accom- 
plish a  regular  manufacture. 


REPORT 

Addressed  to  his  Excellency  ike  Minister  of  War,  upon  the  Culture  of  tlie 
Sugar  Sorgho,  by  M.  HARDY,  Director  General  of  the  Government 
Nursery  at  Hamma,  in  Algeria,  Member  of  the  Imperial  Society  of 
Acclimation.  Translated  for  this  work  by  II.  S.  OLCOTT,  of  the 
Westchester  Farm  School,  Mount  Vernon,  N.  Y. 

(From  "  SUGAB  CANB  AND  SUGAB  MAKING,"  by  C.  F.  Stansbury— A.  O.  Moore.) 

ON  the  18th  of  May  last,  I  sowed  plots  of  sorgho  sucre,  comprising 
a  total  area  of  about  sixty-five  square  rods,  (Eug.,)  of  a  nearly  uniform 
quality  of  soil.  The  ground  had  been  deeply  worked  and  fully  man- 
ured, The  seed  was  sown  in  drills  eighty  centimetres  apart.  When 
the  young  plants  had  become  sufficiently  strong,  I  thinned  out,  leaving 
them  at  thirty  to  thirty-five  centimetres  apart  in  the  drill.  The  plan- 
tation received  during  the  season  three  hoeings  and  three  slight  irriga- 
tions, which  consisted  in  turning  a  small  stream  of  water  through  an 
open  trench  running  alongside  each  row.  Not  more  than  four  hun- 
dred cubic  metres  of  water  were  necessary  to  the  hectare.  At  the 
last  hoeing  the  dirt  was  drawn  to  the  foot  of  the  plants,  in  such  man- 
ner as  to  form  a  slight  hill,  both  for  the  purpose  of  protecting  the 
plants  against  the  wind  and  to  favor  the  development  of  extra  roots 
which  spring  from  the  stalk,  as  is  the  case  with  Indian  corn. 


EEPORT   OF   M.   HARDY.  339 

The  majority  of  stalks  attained  a  height  of  four  or  nve  yards  ;  a 
great  number  did  not  exceed  a  thickness  of  ten  to  eleven  centimetres. 
The  seed  ripens  about  the  middle  of  September  ;  and  despite  the  at- 
tacks of  sparrows,  the  sixty-five  square  rods  gave  me  four  hundred 
and  twenty-five  kilogrammes  of  seed,  which  would  equal  two  thousand 
five  hundred  kilogrammes  per  hectare. 

I  have  also  cut  the  stalk,  to  make  comparative  weighings  from 
various  marked  portions  of  the  three  plots.  It  was  noticed  that  the 
plants  had  usually  from  three  to  seven  stalks,  (suckers,)  or  an  average 
of  five.  The  stalks  stripped  clean  of  their  leaves,  then  deprived  of 
the  upper  ends,  which  contain  little  or  no  saccharine  matters,  were 
reduced  to  an  average  length  of  2"5  metres  (a  little  over  eight 
feet).  From  these  pieces  I  obtained  by  weight  a  yield  of  83,250  kilo- 
grammes of  saccharine  stalks  to  the  hectare. 

The  preceding  year,  in  my  first  experiment  with  the  sugar  sorgho,  I 
had  planted  it  in  groups  about  two  and  a  half  feet  apart  each  way. 
The  stalks  grew  nearly  like  the  crop  of  the  present  year  ;  but,  crowded 
too  much  by  this  close  planting,  they  did  not  attain  the  weight  and 
diameter  of  this  year's  stalks.  Their  yield  per  hectare  was  scarcely 
forty  to  forty-five  thousand  kilogrammes.*  The  spacing  and  mode  of 
planting,  in  1855,  seemed  entirely  suitable  for  soils  of  good  fertility, 
the  only  ones  on  which  the  sorgho  culture  should  be  attempted,  if  it 
is  desired  to  obtain  its  full  development  and  greatest  possible  yield. 
This  wide  culture  likewise  enables  us  to  make  use  of  horse  tools,  such 
as  the  horse-shoe  for  cultivation,  and  the  light  plow  to  make  trenches 
for  irrigation. 

The  stalks  bruised  in  a  mortar  after  having  been  cut  into  small 
pieces,  and  then  submitted  to  strong  pressure,  yielded  sixty-seven  per 
cent  of  sap. 

The  juices  had  at  the  end  of  September,  at  the  time  of  gathering 
the  seed,  a  density  of  8|°  Beaume,  which  would  indicate  an  approxi- 
mative saccharine  richness  of  thirteen  per  cent.  I  distinctly  say  an 
approximative  richness,  not  actual,  for  I  have  no  saccharometer  at  this 

*  NOTE  BY  TBANB. — The  crop  of  sorgho  raised  during  the  last  season — 1856 — at  tho 
Farm  School,  was  planted  in  this  manner— 2}x8  feet— six  stalks  to  tho  hill.  The 
plants  attained  an  immense  height,  but  were  so  weak  as  to  be  prostrated  by  a  wind 
storm,  and  the  beed  did  not  ripen  in  consequence. — H.  8.  O. 


340  APPENDIX. 

place  ;  and  this  is  the  only  instrument  which  enables  us  to  determine 
the  per  ceutage  of  uncrystallizable  or  grape  sugar.  It  is,  therefore, 
to  the  polarizing  saccharometer  that  we  must  look  to  determine  this 
important  point.  But  supposing  the  entire  sugar  to  be  crystallizable, 
the  hectare  would  give  the  following  result :  S3^°  X  67  =  5fffV7  X 
13  =  7254  kilogramme  of  sugar,  or  the  equivalent  for  one  portion  of 
uncrystallizable  sugar. 

The  sap  containing  grape  sugar,  or  uncrystallizable,  is  not  less  sus- 
ceptible of  alcoholization  than  if  it  had  none  but  crystallizable.  But 
I  will  again  refer  to  this  matter. 

The  stalks  which  had  been  robbed  of  their  seed  heads  having  been 
left  standing  in  the  field,  I  had  the  satisfaction  to  see  them  two  months 
after  the  gathering  of  the  seed  still  standing,  untouched  by  the  wind, 
and  safe  from  the  attacks  of  worms,  and,  moreover,  retaining  their 
original  sweet  taste.  Thus  we  see  that  not  only  does  the  sweet  prin- 
ciple develop  itself  at  the  time  of  ripening  the  seed,  but  it  continues 
to  exist,  unchanged,  in  the  stalks  long  after  the  seed  tops  are  removed  ; 
and  it  is  absolutely  proved  that  in  Algeria  we  may  use  the  seeds  of  the 
sorgho  when  they  are  fully  ripe,  without  lessening  the  crop  of  the  sac- 
charine matters  contained  in  the  stalk. 

The  sorgho  seed  has  at  present  an  inordinate  value,  because  of  its 
rarity  ;  but  this  will  be  but  of  short  duration,  and  the  price  will  rap- 
idly descend  to  a  level  with  the  ordinary  cereals,  the  yield  being  so 
very  prolific  as  to  quickly  surpass  even  the  most  unusual  demands  for 
planting. 

Besides  the  foregoing  uses,  this  seed  will  bear  a  certain  industrial 
value,  and  have  other  employment  than  the  rearing  of  poultry  or  pigs, 
like  the  seed  of  the  broom  corn.  Doctor  Sicard,  of  Marseilles,  has 
discovered,  during  the  past  year,  that  the  seed  of  the  sorgho  sucre 
contains  in  the  outer  coating  a  very  beautiful  red  color,  from  which 
he  has  obtained  all  the  various  tints  ranging  from  red  to  violet.  M. 
Chevreul  has  likewise  noticed  the  remarkable  and  entirely  character, 
istic  facility  of  this  dye  for  tinting  silk.* 

*  I  have  repeated  the  experiment  of  Dr.  Sicard  and  M.  Chevroul  with  entire  success. 
The  hulls,  stripped  from  the  seed,  andboi'edfor  about  fifteen  minutes  in  pure  water, 
yield  a  deep  purplish  red  solution,  in  which  I  have  dyed  cotton  and  silk  fabrics.  The 
tints  range  from  deep  purple  to  a  splendid  opal.  The  dye,  I  find  on  microscopic  exam  • 


BEPOKT   OF   M.    HARDY.  oil 

For  my  part,  I  have  extracted  from  the  stalks  a  product  which  will 
not  be  without  its  uses,  and  of  which  I  will  speak  again. 

The  sorgho  Sucre  is,  so  to  speak,  perennial,  for  I  have  plants  which 
are  now  at  the  end  of  their  second  year  of  growth  and  are  commenc- 
ing to  grow  for  tlte  third  season,  and  giving  every  evidence  of  an  in- 
tention to  again  complete  the  maturity  of  their  growth.  But  I  dp 
not  suppose  it  would  be  useful  to  preserve  a  plantation  throughout 
several  seasons.  I  believe  that  the  attempt  would  prove  more  trouble- 
some than  profitable.  The  second  year  the  stalks  scarcely  attain  a 
height  of  one  and  a  half  or  two  yards. 

These  first  experiments  which  I  lay  before  your  Excellency  are  not 
the  only  ones  undertaken  by  me  ;  I  have  made  diligent  study  of  its 
virtues,  and  obtain  the  following  results  : 

The  stalks  which  had  been  topped  to  gather  the  seed,  were  allowed 
to  stand  as  they  grew  until  the  month  of  February  last.  I  made  ex- 
tractions of  juice  at  various  periods. 

First  attempt  (made  in  the  latter  part  of  September  at  the  gather- 
ing of  the  seed).  Obtained  sixty-seven  of  juice  for  one  hundred  of 
stalks  ;  this  juice  showed  a  density  of  eight  and  three  caiarters. 

November  28, 1  obtained  fifty-two  per  cent,  of  juice  ;  density  nin- 
and  a  half. 

January  31,  obtained  fifty-one  per  cent,  of  juice  of  a  density  of 
eight  and  a  half. 

Finally,  February  16,  last  trial,  I  obtained  49'5  per  cent,  of  juice, 
with  a  density  of  eight  degrees. 

Thus,  from  the  end  of  September  until  the  end  of  November,  the 
stalks  standing  in  the  field  lost  nothing  of  their  proportion  of  saccha- 
rine principle  ;  for  if  the  quantity  of  juice  had  diminished  some  fifteen 
per  cent.,  representing  0'66  per  cent,  of  alcohol,  on  the  other  hand, 
this  juice  had  gained  some  0'75  per  cent,  in  richness,  representing 

ination,  is  contained  In  the  fibers  which  make  up  the  inner  part  of  the  seed  hull,  and 
in  the  compact  silicious  structure  of  the  hull  itself.  The  fibers  look  like  hemp  fibers 
dyed.  The  hull,  after  boing  subjected  to  prolonged  boiling,  is  not  unlike  in  appearance 
a  piece  of  sheet  India  rubber.  The  color  of  the  seed  covering  is  not  black,  as  is  gen- 
erally supposed,  but  a  very  deep  purple.  From  the  readiness  with  -which  the  dye 
separates  f  om  the  hull,  it  seems  as  if  this  feature  of  sorgho  culture  would  prove  far 
from  unimportant. 


342  APPENDIX. 

nearly  the  equivalent  of  atCObol ;  whence  it  follows,  that  the  saccha- 
rine or  alcoholic  richness  had  on  the  contrary  increased. 

From  the  close  of  November  to  the  middle  of  February,  the  dimin- 
ution in  weight  and  quality  has  not  arrjved^  at  such  a  degree  as  to 
prevent  the  economical  manufacture  of  products  throughout  this  long 
lapse  of  time.  This  is  of  great  moment.  In  fact,  whilst  in  the  mid- 
dle of  France  the  frosts  have  destroyed  the  stalks  of  the  sorgho  as 
early  as  the  end  of  October,  in  Algeria  these  stalks  may  be  preserved 
without  alteration,  so  to  speak,  and  without  expense,  throughout 
almost  the  entire  winter,  for  the  use  of  the  distilleries. 

The  trials  for  alcohol  producing,  were  made  on  the  juice  extracted 
January  31.  I  put  in  two  globes  of  glass,  two  litres  of  juice,  with 
the  addition  of  a  little  brewer's  yeast,  somewhat  old  and  slightly  sour  ; 
and  two  other  litres,  without  yeast.  Then  I  boiled  some  cuttings  of 
the  sorgho,  which  I  then  peeled  and  pressed.  This  juice  was  put  in  a 
third  globe.  The  three  glasses  were  put  in  the  green  house  for  young 
plants  (serre  aux  boutures) — the  temperature  ranging  from  twenty-two 
to  thirty  degrees  centigrade. 

The  next  day,  the  juice  which  had  been  mixed  with  no  foreign  ingre- 
dient, and  which  I  call  the  plain  juice,  commenced  fermenting.  Num- 
erous bubbles  of  carbonic  acid  gas  arose  ;  but  neither  in  the  boiled 
juice,  nor  in  that  mixed  with  yeast,  were  any  signs  of  fermentation 
manifested1. 

The  3d  February,  I  made  a  trial  with  the  Salleron  apparatus. 
The  plain  juice,  gave  two  and  a  half  per  cent,  of  alcohol ;  juice 
with  yeast,  gave  0  ;  boiled  juice  gave  0. 

February  6th,  second  trial  made.  Plain  juice,  gave  6-20  per  cent, 
of  alcohol ;  juice,  with  yeast,  gave  0  ;  boiled  juice,  gave  0. 

February  8th,  third  trial.  Plain  juice,  gave  10-30  per  cent,  of 
alcohol  ;  juice,  with  yeast,  gave  0  ;  boiled  juice  gave  1  per  cent. 

February  10th,  fourth  trial.  Plain  juice,  gave  9'90  per  cent,  of 
alcohol ;  juice  with  yeast,  gave  0 ;  boiled  juice,  gave  3-20  per  cent. 

February  12th,  fifth  trial.  Plain  juice  gave  9'30  per  cent  of  alco- 
hol ;  with  yeast  gave  1  ;  boiled,  gave  5-40. 

February  14th,  sixth  trial.  Plain  juice  gave  8*60  per  cent,  of  alco 
hoi ;  with  yeast,  gave  0 ;  boiled,  gave  2-40. 


REPORT   OF   M.   HARDY.  343 

February  I6th,  seventh  and  last  trial.  Plain  juice,  gave  7'90  per 
cent,  of  alcohol ;  with  yeast,  gave  0  ;  boiled  juice  gave  1-90. 

This  series  of  experiments  seems  conclusive,  and  proves  that  the 
juice  of  the  sorgho  carries  in  itself  a  fermentative  principle  ;  and  that 
it  is  not  necessary  to  add  to  it  any  yeast  to  obtain  the  alcoholic  fer- 
mentation, if  it  be  simply  submitted  to  the  proper  temperature.  The 
addition  of  yeast,  which,  besides  being  of  bad  quality,  neutralized 
the  action  of  the  natural  ferment  of  the  albuminous  matter  in  the 
juice,  and  hastened  rapidly  the  acidulous  fermentation.  The  boiled 
juice  did  not  experience  a  thorough  fermentation,  because  the  albumin- 
ous fermentable  principle  was  coagulated  by  the  cooking. 

At  the  end  of  eight  days,  the  fermentation  of  the  plain  juice  of  the 
sorgho  arrived  at  its  maximum  of  alcoholization,  and  at  this  point 
it  should  be  submitted  to  distillation ;  two  days  after,  its  alcoholic 
richness  diminished,  and  it  passed  to  acidification. 

The  seed  of  the  sorgho  is  equally  as  susceptible  of  giving  a  notable 
per  centage  of  alcohol,  as  the  other  cereals  ;  I  myself  have,  as  yet, 
made  no  experiment  in  this  direction ;  but,  by  analogy,  one  is  natu- 
rally led  to  conclude  that  it  should  be  so.  The  seed  of  the  common 
sorghum,  (broom  corn,)  according  to  M.  Bassel,  gives  24-75  per  cent, 
of  its  weight  in  alcohol ;  that  of  the  sugar  sorgho  should  not  yield 
less  ;  whence  it  follows,  that  the  two  thousand  five  hundred  kilo- 
grammes that  one  hectare  produces,  should  give  six  hundred  and 
eighteen  kilogrammes,  and  seventy-five  grammes  of  alcohol.  This 
would,  perhaps,  be  the  best  use  to  put  it  to,  whenever  the  supply  shall 
exceed  the  demand  for  planting. 

When  the  sorgho  stalk  has  arrived  at  perfect  maturity,  a  waxy 
efflorescence  develops  itself  on  the  surface,  similar  to  that  of  several 
varieties  of  sugar  cane,  and  which  is  simply  cerosie.  Cerosie,  or  vege- 
table wax,  is  dry  and  hard,  and  may  be  pulverized  ;  it  is  fusible  at 
ninety  degrees  ;  mixed  with  a  little  purified  tallow,  it  may  be  made 
into  caudles,  which  give  a  beautiful  bright  light. 

I  scraped  the  cerosie  from  a  number  of  stalks,  and  found  that  a 
hectare  should  give  one  hundred  and  eight  kilogrammes,  four  hundred 
grammes  of  this  substance— costing  an  average  price  of  two  hundred 
and  fifty-two  francs  for  hand  labor  in  gathering  it.  Beeswax  being 


34:4 


APPENDIX. 


sold  at  four  francs  per  kilogramme— cerosie  should  be  worth  three 
francs  fifty  ceuts;  this  would  give  a  receipt  of  three  hundred  and 
thirty  francs  sixty-two  cents,  and  a  net  profit  of  eighty-eight  francs 
sixty-two  cents,  to  be  added  to  the  other  net  profits  of  the  sorgho 
culture.  This  item  would  moreover  assume  a  new  importance,  if  we 
find  (as  I  'doubt  not  we  shall)  processes  of  extraction  of  the  wax, 
more  economical  than  the  one  employed  by  me,  which  consists  in 
scraping  the  stalk  with  a  knife,  in  a  similar  manner  to  the  process 
employed  with  the  wax  bearing  palm  tree. 

The  forage  for  stock  which  may  be  obtained  on  a  hectare,  both  by 
stripping  the  leaves  and  by  the  after-math,  has  a  determined  value, 
and  it  is  no  exaggeration  to  estimate  it  at  two  hundred  metrical 
quintals*  when  the  stalks  have  been  dried,  and  this,  at  four  francs 
per  quintal,  would  yield  eight  hundred  francs. 

The  total  profit  and  expense  of  a  well  cultivated  hectare  of  sorgho 
sucre  (molasses  and  syrup  not  being  considered)  would  be  as  follows  : 

7954  litres,  68  of  alcohol,  at  140  fr.  per  hectolitre,  the  actual 
price  in  the  principal  markets  of  France,  deducting  10  fr.  per  hecto- 
litre for  transportation,  waste,  and  expenses  of  all  kind,  would  be  130 
fr.  per  hectolitre, 10,341 

108  kil.  400  grammes  cerosie,  at  3  fr.  50  c.  per  kil.      -        330  62 

20,800  kilogrammes  forage,  at  4  fr.  per  quintal,     -        -     800 


11,471  62 


EXPENSES. 


Labor,  80  fr. ;  cultivation,  40  fr., 

Sowing,        .        ... 

Hoeing,  weeding,  thinning  out, 

Irrigations,    - 

Manure  used,    -        ... 

Harvesting,  - 

Rent  of  ground, 

Cost  of  extracting  wax, 


120  fr. 

30 

90 

40 

6C 

80 
100 
252 

772 


*  Quintal,  112  Ibs. 


REPORT   OF   M.    HARDY.  345 

Cost  of  distilling,  at  30  fr.  per  hectolitre, 
including  hand  labor,  fuel,  casks, 
general  expenses,  interest  on  capital 
employed,  keeping  of  material,  &c.,  -  -  2386-40 


Total  expenses  to  be  deducted,  ------    3158  40 


Net  profit, Fr.  8313  22 

Or,  $1662  65 

This  enormous  profit  would  be  due  to  the  actual  high  price  of  alco- 
hols ;  but,  supposing  even  that  this  should  fall  to  70  francs  per  hecto- 
litre, which  is  certainly  the  lowest  point  it  could  reach,  the  total  net 
profit  per  hectare  would  still  be  3,350  40  francs.  It  is  hence  readily 
seen  that  the  production  of  alcohol  from  the  sugar  sorgho  in  Algeria 
will  be  a  leading  industry  of  such  nature  as  to  resist  all  crises,  and 
which  cannot  be  too  sedulously  fostered. 

The  sugar  sorgho  needs,  to  pass  through  all  the  phases  of  its  vege- 
tation from  the  planting  of  the  seed  to  the  maturity  of  its  grain,  2,760 
degrees  of  heat.  The  middle  of  the  month  of  May  is  the  most  favorable 
time  for  planting  and  to  secure  fine  growth.  If  sown  at  that  time,  the 
plant  would  ripen  about  the  15th  September,  and  consume  122  days 
from  planting  to  ripening  of  seed.  This  period  is,  undoubtedly,  the 
most  favorable  to  obtaining  seed  for  planting.  However,  the  growth 
may  be  made  at  a  lower  temperature,  say  an  average  of  12°  to  15° 
(cent.) ;  this  would  enable  us  to  commence  planting  about  the  1st 
April.  The  seed  planted  at  this  time  would  produce  plants  ripening 
their  seed  towards  the  13th  August,  at  the  end  of  135  days  of  growth. 
Thus  successive  plantings  might  be  made  until  the  middle  of  July  ;  the 
latter  would  ripen  seed  in  the  latter  part  of  November,  after  143  days 
of  growth. 

The  last  mentioned  date  is,  I  think,  the  very  latest  on  which  plant- 
ing may  be  done,  with  any  certainty  of  ripening  the  stalks.  Judging 
from  the  marked  peculiarity  possessed  by  the  stalks  of  the  sorgho,  of 
remaining  unchanged  for  several  months,  it  is  certain  that  distilleries 
can  be  kept  working  on  them  for  six  months  of  the  year. 

They  have  seemed  to  fear,  in  the  south  of  France,  that  in  the  long 
15* 


346  APPENDIX. 

run  the  sugar  sorgho,  if  propagated  exclusively  from  its  seed,  would 
surely  degenerate,  and  it  has  been  recommended  to  propagate  by 
suckers.  Their  fears  might  be  realized  if  this  species  were  cultivated 
without  any  foresight,  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  some  of  its  con- 
geners, broom  corn  for  instance.  Degeneration  might  hi  some  cases 
result,  but  there  is  nothing  to  be  apprehended  if  the  sorgho  be  kept 
entirely  separate  and  distinct.  The  propagation  by  suckers  and  shoots 
would  scarcely  be  practicable  on  a  large  scale ;  besides,  such  pro- 
ceeding would  result  in  producing  a  feeble  offspring  ;  the  new  plant 
would  be  less  vigorous  and  profitable.  Nevertheless,  to  test  this  point, 
I  have  made  a  small  plantation  of  suckers  of  the  sorgho  sucre,  and 
intend  to  make  precise  experiments  during  the  coming  season. 
I  am,  your 'Excellency,  &c., 

HARDY, 

Director  of  the  Imperial  Central  Nursery, 
Hamma,  Algeria,  1856. 


That  our  readers  may  make  the  necessary  allowances  in  comparing 
the  results  set  forth  by  M.  Hardy  with  those  in  our  climate,  it 
would  be  well  to  remember  that  Hamma,  in  Algiers,  lies  near  the 
latitude  36°,  which  corresponds  with  Raleigh,  N.  C.,  Nashville,  Ten- 
nessee, and  Fayetteville,  Arkansas.  Inasmuch  as  in  Algiers  the 
sorgho  gives  the  largest  yield  of  all  its  products,  it  follows  that  its 
culture  in  the  United  States  will  probably  be  found  most  remunerative 
in  the  territory  lying  between  40°  and  29°,  bounded  on  either  side  by 
Baltimore  and  New  Orleans. — TRANS. 


SOKGHO  IN  THE  SOUTH.  347 


HISTORY  OF  THE  SORGHO  IN  THE  SOUTHERN 

STATES. 

BY    D.   REDMOND, 
Associate  Editor  of  the  "Southern  Cultivator." 

[The  following  valuable  communication  from  D.  Redmond,  Esq., 
was  not  received  in  time  for  insertion  in  the  body  of  this  work,  which 
accounts  for  its  appearing  in  the  Appendix.] 

IN  the  winter  of  1854-5, 1  obtained,  per  mail,  through  a  seed  im- 
porting house  in  Boston,  two  ounces  of  what  was  then  denominated 
"  Chinese  Sugar  Cane,  or  Holcus  saccharatus."  I  am  not  aware  that 
any  of  this  seed  had  been  distributed  from  the  Patent  Office  in  this 
neighborhood,  up  to  that  time ;  nor  had  I  then  any  other  evidence 
of  its  value  than  the  newspaper  advertisement  which  induced  me  to 
send  for  it.  I  have  since  learned,  however,  that  the  Patent  Office 
distributed  a  small  quantity  of  seed  in  the  spring  of  1854  ;  and  that, 
prior  even  to  that  time,  the  plant  had  been  tested  to  a  limited  extent 
by  a  few  gentlemen  in  the  vicinity  of  New  Orleans.  Nothing  satis- 
factory, however,  was  known  of  the  plant  here  at  that  time ;  and 
wishing  to  have  it  thoroughly  tested,  I  sent  small  samples,  per  letter, 
to  various  agricultural  and  horticultural  friends  in  Georgia,  and  the 
adjoining  states,  requesting  them  to  communicate  to  me  the  result 
of  their  experiments  with  it.  For  myself,  I  merely  planted  seven  or 
eight  hills,  in  rather  poor  ground,  in  my  garden,  and  watched  its 
growth  with  considerable  interest.  At  first  I  was  disappointed,  and 
quite  ready  to  rank  it  among  the  many  humbugs  of  the  day,  as  it 
came  up  very  weakly,  like  grass  or  Egyptian  millet,  and  grew  off 
quite  slowly.  In  a  few  weeks,  however,  it  began  to  shoot  upward 
with  great  rapidity,  and  in  less  than  three  months  attained  the  height 
of  ten  feet,  with  large  and  well-filled  heads  of  seed.  When  these 
seeds  were  nearly  ripe,  I  incidentally  cut  one  of  the  stalks,  peeled  off 
the  hard  outer  husk,  and  was  quite  surprised  to  find  a  solid  pith  or 
core,  of  about  three  fourths  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  crisp,  brittle,  and 


34:8  APPENDIX. 

of  an  exceedingly  sweet  and  pleasant  flavor— entirely  unlike  any  thing 
of  the  corn  stalk  family  that  I  had  ever  tasted.  It  was,  in  fact,  ready 
made  candy ;  and  as  soon  as  the  younger  members  of  the  family  and 
the  negroes  "  got  the  taste i;  of  it,  I  was  obliged  to  interdict  its  further 
use,  in  order  to  save  seed.  When  the  latter  were  fully  ripe,  I  cut  off 
the  heads  and  saved  them  carefully,  noticing,  with  some  surprise,  that 
the  leaves  or  blades  of  fodder  were  still  as  fresh,  green,  and  succulent 
as  ever.  The  stalks  were  then  cut  off  near  the  ground,  and  fed,  leaves 
and  all,  to  my  horses,  mules,  and  milch  cows  ;  all  of  which  ate  of  it 
with  the  greatest  apparent  relish  and  avidity.  Considering  that  crop 
disposed  of  for  the  season,  I  paid  no  more  attention  to  the  stubble  or 
stumps,  until  I  happened  to  notice  that,  millet-like,  they  were  shooting 
out  anew,  and  pushing  on  for  a  second  growth.  This  growth  I 
watched  with  some  interest,  until  the  first  frosts  checked  it ;  at  which 
time  the  stalks  were  six  feet  high,  full  of  broad  and  juicy  leaves,  and 
with  the  second  crop  of  seed  just  making  its  appearance  above  the 
"boot." 

Convinced  by  this  time  that  it  was  valuable  at  least  for  the  produc- 
tion of  soiling  forage  and  dried  fodder,  I  next  turned  my  attention  to 
its  saccharine  properties,  and  fortunately  induced  iny  friend,  Dr.  Robt. 
Battey,  of  Rome,  Ga.,  who  was  at  that  time  pursuing  the  study  of 
experimental  chemistry  in  the  well-known  laboratory  of  Prof.  Booth, 
of  Philadelphia,  to  test  it.  As  the  result  of  his  experiments,  Dr. 
Battey  sent  me  three  small  phials — one  containing  a  fine  syrup  ;  one  a 
sample  of  crude,  brown  sugar, ;  and  the  other  a  very  good  sample  of 
crystallized  sugar.  This,  I  believe,  to  be  the  first  crystallized  sugar 
made  in  the  United  States,  from  the  juice  of  the  sorgho  sucre  ;  and, 
as  Dr.  Batty's  opinion  of  its  value  as  a  sugar  plant,  fully  agreed  with 
the  reports  of  the  French  savans,  who  had  investigated  its  properties, 
and  with  my  own  convictions,  I  disseminated  the  seed  more  widely 
during  the  year  1856,  and  planted  nearly  two  acres,  for  the  purpose  of 
raising  the  seed  largely,  and  more  fully  testing  he  saccharine  property 
and  the  ability  of  the  plant  to  bear  repeated  cuttings,  like  the  Egyp- 
tian and  other  varieties  of  millet.  It  was  planted  very  late,  on  thin 
land,  and  received  but  imperfect  culture  ,  and  yet,  I  that  year  cut  it 
three  times,  and  saved  a  late  crop  of  fodder  from  it  in  addition.  The 


SOKGrHO  IN  THE  SOUTH.  349 

present  year  (1857)  I  have  cut  it  four  times,  up  to  the  present  date, 
August  26. 

During  the  summer  of  1856,  particular  attention  was  called  to  the 
syrup  making  properties  of  this  plant,  by  the  Report  of  Governor 
Hammond,  of  South  Carolina,  whose  experiments  had  been  most  ably 
and  carefully  conducted. 

This  Report  was  read  before  the  "  Beach  Island  (S.  C.)  Farmers' 
Club,"  and  was  followed  by  that  of  Colonel  Peters,  of  Atlanta,  and 
others,  all  of  which  were  published,  and  presented  such  satisfactory 
results  that  the  agricultural  community  generally  were  aroused  to  the 
importance  of  the  new  "  Sugar  Cane,"  and  desirous  of  giving  it  a  trial. 
The  largest  growers  of  the  plant,  at  this  time  (1856)  were,  Absalom 
Jackson,  Esq.,  of  Montgomery,  Ala. ;  Colonel  R.  Peters,  of  Atlanta ; 
Dr.  Whitten,  of  Hancock  Co.;  Dr.  Daniell,  of  Decatur,  Ga., 
and  the  writer.  The  seed  raised  by  these  persons  was,  we  believe, 
nearly  all  saved,  and  very  widely  disseminated  over  the  Union,  but 
principally  through  the  southern  states,  where,  unquestionably,  the 
plant  attains  its  fullest  and  most  perfect  development.  Twenty  or 
thirty  thousand  packages  of  the  seed  alluded  to  were  scattered  over 
the  country  ;  and,  in  the  South  alone,  probably  thousands  of  acres 
are  now  growing.  A  large  number  of  the  growers  are  preparing  to 
convert  the  juice  of  the  sorgho  into  syrup  and  sugar ;  and  if  an  easy 
and  economical  process  for  crystallizing  the  latter  can  be  employed, 
this  plant  will  at  once  become  one  of  our  most  important  staple  pro- 
ductions. I  have,  within  the  past  two  months,  received  letters  from 
gentlemen  in  nearly  every  one  of  the  southern  states,  who  were  rais- 
ing the  cane  from  seed  which  I  furnished,  and  the  terms  of  praise,  and 
even  enthusiasm,  with  which  they  dwell  upon  its  good  qualities,  are 
truly  gratifying  to  me.  Upon  the  whole,  therefore,  the  sorgho  may 
be  considered  a  decided  success,  in  the  South,  and  the  results  obtained 
may  be  briefly  summed  up  as  follows  : 

1.  An  acre  of  the  stalks,  properly  cultivated,  on  fair  land,  will 
yield  from  three  hundred  to  six  hundred  gallons  of  excellent  syrup, 
equal  to  the  bestNew  Orleans,  and  worth,  at  present  prices,  from 
forty-five  to  seventy  cents  per  gallon. 

2.  If  planted  early,  it  will  fully  ripen  two  crops  of  seed,  and  two 


350  APPENDIX. 

crops  of  cane  for  crushing— as  new  shoots  are  invariably  thrown  out, 
from  the  r\»ots,  and  attain  full  development  after  the  first  cutting, 
which  takes  place  about  the  25th  of  July,  in  this  latitude,  in  favorable 


3.  From  25  to  100  bushels  of  seed  can  be  raised  to  the  acre,  which 
seed,  for  all  feeding  purposes,  is  at  least  as  valuable  as  oats. 

4.  It  bears  repeated  cutting  when  green,  and  is  inferior  to  no  other 
plant  for  "  soiling." 

5.  The  seed  and  fodder  are  fully  equal  in  value  to  an  ordinary  corn 
crop,  thus  leaving  the  canes  and  their  juice  a  clear  profit  to  the  cul- 
tivator. 

6.  It  withstands  our  long  droughts  much  better  than  common  corn, 
retaining  its  green  color  and  succulence  even  after  the  seed  matures. 

The  various  economical  uses  to  which  the  sorgho  may  be  applied, 
are  so  fully  adverted  to  •  in  other  portions  of  this  work,  that  it  is. 
unnecessary  to  enter  farther  into  detail ;  and  I  will  close  by  expressing 
the  conviction  that,  wherever  the  climate  is  suitable  to  its  proper 
development,  this  plant  will  fully  realize  all  its  most  sanguine  friends 
have  ever  claimed  for  it.  D.  REDMOND. 

Augusta,  Ga.,  August  26,  1857. 


EXTRACT    FROM    THE    EXPERIMENTS    OF    L'ECOLE 
IMPERIALS  DES  FONTS  ET  CHAUSSEES. 

Specimens  of  tlie  Stalks,  Seeds,  and  Products  of  the  Sugar  Sorgho  sent 
by  M.  Raoulx. 

ANALYSIS  OF  SOIL  ON  WHICH  THE  PLANTS  WERE  GROWN. 

Hygrometric  water,  lost  at  130°     -  -        3-220 

Water  of  combination,  organic  matters,  and  carbonic  acid  10'320 

Nitrogen  0-201 

Silica  and  clay,  insc'uble  in  chlorohydric  acid         -  -      74-900 

Alumina                                                               -            .  3-250 

Peroxide  of  iron                  -           -           -  0-320 


ANALYSES.  851 

Lime      -  6-750 

Magnesia     -  -        0-190 

Alkalies  0-034 

Sulphuric  acid        '  -  -        0-223 

Phosphoric  acid  -          a  trace. 

Chlorohydric  acid    -  -           -        0-041 

Loss 0-551 


100-OOJO 

This  composition  denotes  a  good  soil,  but  of  which  the  fertility  is 
nothing  remarkable. 

2d.  ANALYSIS  OP  THE  STALKS. 

The  stalks  were  cut  in  small  pieces,  and  the  analysis  made  of  a 
mixture  of  all  portions  of  the  stalk- 

Thus  prepared,  they  gave — 

Hygrometric  water  lost  at  130°       -  -  -        26-07 

Organic  matters  and  water  of  combination        -  -  71-93 

Ash  .......          2-00 


100-00 

The  analysis  of  the  ashes  gave — 
.  A.  Water  and  Organic  Matter. 

Hygrometric  water  lost  at  100°    -  -        26-070 

Carbon  -              37-529 

Oxygen      -  -                    28-330 

Hydrogen         -  5-269. 

Nitrogen                            -  -          0-802 

98-000 
B.  Ashes. 

Silica        -  -  0-082 

Lime  0*021 

Alkalies  (partly  in  state  of  carbonate)      -  0-463 

Sulphuric  acid  O'OSO 

Chlorohvdric  acid  ....  0-156 


352  APPENDIX. 

2d .  Matters  soluble  in  Weak  Azotic  Acid. 

Alumina  and  peroxide  of  iron        -  -        0-132 
Lime    -  0-209 

Magnesia  -        0*099 
Alkalies           -  0-102 

Phosphoric  acid    -  -        0'107 

1st.  Matters  insoluble  in  Water  or  Nitric  Acid. 
Silica  and  a  little  clay  0-493 

Carbonic  acid  and  loss      -  -        0-086       2-000 

100-000    100-000 

3d.   ACID  OF  THE  SOEGHO. 

Hygrometric  water  lost  at  130°        -                                    -  14-850 
Organic  matters  and  water  of  combination ;  not  including 

nitrogen        -  79-298 

Nitrogen     -                                                                         -  2-052 

Ashes                 3-800 


100-000 

By  a  treatment  with  ether,  the  seed  was  found  to  yield  3-13  per 
cent,  of  oil.  Signed, 

HERVE  MANGON. 
Countersigned, 

CAVALIER. 


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CATALOGUE    OF    BOOKS 

ON 

AGRICULTURE  AND  HORTICULTURE, 

PUBLISHED  BY 

^ .     O .     MOORE, 

(LATE  C.  M.  SAXTON  &  COMPANY,) 
No.  140  FULTON  STREET,  NEW  YORK, 

SUITABLE   FOR 

SCHOOL,  TOWN,  AGRICULTURAL,  AND  PRIVATE  LIBRARIES. 


THE  AMERICAN  FARMER'S  ENCYCLOPEDIA,  -          -          -          $4  00 

EMBRACING  ALL  THE  KECENT  DISCOVERIES  IN  AGRICULTURAL  OIIEM- 
Istry,  an.l  the  use  of  Mineral,  Vegetable  and  Animal  Manures,  with  Descriptions  and 
Figures  of  American  Insects  injurious  to  Vegetation.  Being  a  Complete  Guide  for  the 
cultivation  of  every  variety  oi  Garden  and  Field  Crops.  Illustrated  by  numerous  En- 
gravings of  Grasses,  Grains,  Animals,  Implements,  Insects,  &c.  By  GOFVERNEUB 
EMKRSON,  of  Pennsylvania,  upon  the  basis  of  Johnson's  Farmer's  Encyclopedia. 

DOWNING'S  (A.  J.)  LANDSCAPE  GARDENING.  -  -  3  50 

A  TREATISE  ON  THE  THEORY  AND  PRACTI^  '  \NDSCAPE  GAR- 
dening.  Adapted  to  North  America,  with  a  view  to  the  litijuuvement  of  Country 
Residences;  comprising  Historical  Notices  and  General  Principles  of  the  Art,  direc- 
tions for  Laying  out  Grounds  and  Arranging  Plantations,  the  Description  and  Cultiva- 
tion of  Hardy  Trees,  Decorative  Accompaniments  to  the  House  and  Grounds,  the 
Formation  of  Pieces  of  Artificial  Waters,  Flower  Gardens,  &c.,  with  Remarks  on 
Rural  Architecture.  Elegantly  Illustrated,  -with  a  Portrait  of  the  Author.  By  A.  J. 
DOWNING. 

DOWNING'S  (A.  J.)  RURAL  ESSAYS,  ....  3  00 

ON  HORTICULTURE,  LANDSCAPE  GARDENING,  KURAL  ARCHITECTURE, 

Trees,  Agriculture,  Fruit,  with  his  Letters  from  England.    Edited,  with  a  Memoir  of 

the  Author,  by  GGOKOB  WM.  CUBTIS,  and  a  letter  to  his  friends,  by  FBEDEKIKA  BEE- 

MBR,  and  an  elegant  steel  Portrait  of  the  Author. 

DADD'S  ANATOMY  AND  PHYSIOLOGY  OF  THE  HORSE,  Plain.  2  00 
Do.  Do.  Do.  Do.  Colored  Plates,  4  00 

WITH  ANATOMICAL  AND  QUESTIONAL  ILLUSTRATIONS  ;  Contain! nor, 
also,  a  Series  of  Examinations  on  Equine  Anatomy  and  Philosophy,  with  Instructions 
In  reference  to  Dissection,  and  the  mode  of  making  Anatomical  Preparations ;  to  which 
Is  added  a  Glossary  of  Veterinary  Technicalities,  Toxicological  Chart,  and  Dictionary 
of  Veterinary  Science. 

DADD'S  MODERN  HORSE  DOCTOR.  ....  1  00 

CONTAINING  PRACTICAL  OBSERVATIONS  ON  THE  CAUSES,  NATURE 
and  Treatment  of  Disease  and  Lameness  of  Horses,  embracing  the  most  recent  and  ap- 
proved methods,  according  to  an  enlightened  system  of  veterinary  therapeutics,  for 
the  preservation  and  restoration  i  health.  With  Illustrations. 


2  Boolts  Published  by  A.  0.  MOORE. 

DADD'S  (GEO.  H.)  AMERICAN  CATTLF  DOCTOR,         -          -          $1  00 

CONTAINING  THE  NECESSARY  INFORMATION  FOR  PRESERVING  Tin-: 
Health  and  Curing  the  Diseases  of  Oxen,  Cows,  Sheep,  and  Swine,  with  a  great  variety 
of  Original  Recipes  and  Valuable  Information.  in  reference  to  Farm  and  Dairy  manage- 
ment, whereby  every  man  can  be  his  own  Cattle  Doctor.  The  principles  taught  in 
this  work  are,  that  all  Medication  shall  be  subservient  to  Nature—  that  all  Medicines 
must  be  sanative  in  their  operation,  and  administered  with  a  view  of  aiding  the  vital 
powers,  instead  of  depressing,  as  heretofore,  with  the  lancet  or  by  pcisoa.  By  G  H. 
DADD,  M.  D.,  Veterinary  Practitioner. 

THE  DOG  AND  GUN,       .......  50 

.  A  FE\V  LOOSE  CHAPTERS  ON  SHOOTING,  among  which  will  be  found 
some  Anecdotes  and  Incidents  ;  also,  instructions  for  Dog  Breaking,  and  interesting  let- 
ters from  Sportsmen.    By  A  BAD  SHOT. 
MORGAN  HORSES,  -          -          .....  1  00 

A  PREMIUM  ESSAY  ON  THE  ORIGIN,  HISTORY,  AND  CHARACTERISTICS   • 
of  this  remarkable  American  Breed  of  Horses  ;  tracing  the  Pedigree  from  the  original 
Justin  Morgan,  through  the  most  noted  of  his  progeny,  down  to  the  present  time. 
With  numerous  portraits.    To  which  are  added  hints  for  Breeding,  Breaking,   and 
GeneralUso  and  Management  of  Horses,  with  practical  Directions  for  training  them  for 
exhibition  at  Agricultural  Fairs.    By  D.  C.  LINSLEY. 
SORGHO  AND  1MPKEE,  THE  CHINESE  AND  AFRICAN  SUGAR 

CANES.          ........  1  00 

A  COMPLETE  TREATISE  UPON  THEIR  ORIGIN  AND  VARIETIES,  CULTURE 
and  Uses,  their  value  as  a  Forage  Crop,  and  directions  for  making  Sugar,  Molasses, 
Alcohol,  Sparkling  and  Still  Wines,  Beer,  Cider,  Vinegar,  Paper,  Starch,  and  Dye 
Stuffs.  Fully  Illustrated  with  Drawings  of  Approved  Machinery  ;  With  an  Appendix 
by  LEONARD  WHAT,  of  Caflraria,  and  a  description  of  his  patented  process  of  crystalliz- 
ing the  juice  of  the  Imphee  ;  with  the  latest  American  experiments,  including  those  of 
1857,  in  the  South.  By  HENRY  S.  OLCOTT.  To  which  are  added  translations  of  valu- 
able French  Pamphlets,  received  from  the  Hon.  JOHN  Y.  MASON,  American  Minister 
at  Paris. 

THE  STABLE  BOOK,         .......  1  00 

A  TREATISE  ON  THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  HORSES,  IN  RELATION  TO 
Btabling,  Groorr'  •  <ding,  Watering  and  Working,  Construction  of  Stables,  Venttla 

tion,  Appendage^,  „.  ^tables,  Management  of  the  Feet,  and  of  Diseased  and  Defective 
Horses.  By  JOHN  STEWART,  Veterinary  Surgeon.  With  Notes  and  Additions,  adapt- 
ing it  to  American  Food  and  Climate.  By  A.  B.  ALLEN,  Editor  of  the  American 
Agriculturist. 

THE  HORSE'S  FOOT,  AND  HOW  TO  KEEP  IT  SOUND,          -  50 

WITH  CUTS,  ILLUSTRATING  THE  ANATOMY  OF  THE  FOOT,  and  contain- 
valuable Hints  on  Shoeing  and  Stable  Management,  in  Health  and  In  Disease.  By 
ILLIAM  MILES. 

"HE  FRUIT  GARDEN  ........  1  25 

A  TREATISE,  INTENDED  TO  EXPLAIN  AND  ILLUSTRATE  THE  Pnvsi- 
ology  of  Fruit  Trees,  the  Theory  and  Practice  of  all  Operations  connected  with  the 
Propagation,  Transplanting,  Pruning  and  Training  of  Orchard  and  Garden  Trees,  as 
Standards,  Dwarfs,  Pyramids,  Espalier,  &c.  The  Laying  out  and  Arranging  different 
kinds  of  Orchards  and  Gardens,  the  selection  of  suitable  varieties  for  different  purposes 
and  localities,  Gathering  and  Preserving  Fruits,  Treatment  of  Diseases,  Destruction  of 
Insects,  Description  and  Uses  of  Implements,  Ac.  Illustrated  with  upwards  of  150 
Figures,  representing  Different  Parts  of  Trees,  all  Practical  Operations,  forms  of  Trees, 
Designs  for  Plantations,  Implements,  &c.  By  P.  BARRY,  of  the  Mount  Hope  Nurseries, 
Rochester,  N.  Y. 

FIELD'S  PEAR  CULTURE  .......  75 

THE  PEAR  GARDEN  ;  or,  a  Treatise  on  the  Propagation  ami 
Cultivation  of  the  Pear  Tree,  with  Instructions  for  Its  Management  from'the  Seedling 
to  the  Bearing  Tree.  By  THOMAS  W.  FIELD. 


ing 
WI 


Books  Pullislied  by  A.  O.  MOORE.  ? 

BRIDGEMAN'S  (THOS.)  YOUNG  GARDENER'S  ASSTSTANT,  $1  50 

IN  THREE  PARTS,  Containing  Catalogues  of  Garden  and  Flower 

Seed,  with  Practical  Directions  under  each  head  for  the  Cultivation  of  Culinary  Vege 

tables  and  Flowers.     Also  directions  for  Cultivating  Fruit  Trees,  the  Grape  Vine,  &c. , 

to  -which  is  added,  a  Calender  to  each  part,  showing  the  work  necessary  to  he  done  in 

the  various  departments  each  month  of  the  year.    One  volume  octavo. 

BRIDGEMAN'S  KITCHEN  GARDENER'S  INSTRUCTOR,       i  Cloth,         50 

"  "  "  Cloth,         60 

BRIDGEMAN'S  FLORIST'S  GUIDE,    ....      }  Cloth,        50 

"  -         Cloth,        60 

BRIDGEMAN'S  FRUIT  CULTIVATOR'S  MANUAL,       .      i  Cloth,        50 

Cloth,        60 

COLE'S  AMERICAN  FRUIT  BOOK, 50 

CONTAINING  DIRECTIONS  FOR  EAISING,  PROPAGATING  AND  MANAG- 
ing  Fruit  Trees,  Shrubs  and  Plants ;  with  a  description  of  the  Best  Varieties  of  Fizit 
including  New  and  Valuable  Kinds. 

COLE'S  AMERICAN  VETERINARIAN,         ....  50 

CONTAINING  DISKASES  OF  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  THEIR  CAUSES, 
Symptoms  and  Remedies;  with  Rules  for  Restoring  and  Preserving  Health  by  (rood 
management ;  also  for  Training  and  Breeding. 

SCHENCK'S  GARDENER'S  TEXT  BOOK 50 

CONTAINING  DIRECTIONS  FOR  THE  FORMATION   AND   MANAGEMENT 

of  the  Kitchen  Garden,  the  Culture  and  Use  of  Vegetables,  Fruits  and  Medicinal  Herbs. 

AMERICAN  ARCHITECT, 6  00 

THE  AMERICAN  ARCHITECT,  Comprising  original  Designs  of  Cheap 
Country  and  Village  Residences,  with  Details,  Specifications,  Plans  and  Directions, 
and  an  Estimate  of  the  Cost  of  Each  Design.  By  JOHN  W.  BITCH,  Architect.  First 
and  Second  Series,  4to,  bound  in  1  ^oL 

BUIST'S  (ROBERT)  AMERICAN  FLOWER  GARDEN  DIRECTORY,  1  25 
CONTAINING  PRACTICAL  DIRECTIONS  FOR  THE  CULTURE  OF  PLANTS, 
in  the  Flower-Garden,  Hot-House,  Green-House,  Rooms  or  Parlor  Windows,  for  every 
Month  in  the  Year ;  with  a  Description  of  the  Plants  most  desirable  in  each,  the  nature 
of  the  Soil  and  Situation  best  adapted  to  their  Growth,  the  Proper  Season  for  Trans- 
planting, &c. ;  with  Instructions  for  Erecting  a  Hot-House,  Green-House,  and  Laying 
out  a  Flower  Garden :  the  whole  adapted  to  either  Large  or  Small  Gardens,  with  In- 
structions for  Preparing  the  Soil,  Propagating,  Planting,  Pruning,  Training  and  Fruit- 
ing the  Grape  Vine. 

THE  AMERICAN  BIRD  FANCIER,     ..... 

CONSIDERED  WITH  REFERENCE  TO  THE  BREEDING,  BEARING,  FEED.- 
ing,  Management  and  Peculiarities  of  Cage  and  House  Birds.  Illustrated  with  Engrav- 
ings. By  D.  JAT  BKOWITE. 

REEMELIN'S  (CHAS.)  VINE  DRESSER'S  MANUAL,     -  50 

AN    ILLUSTRATED    TREATISE  ON  VINEYARDS  AND   WINE-MAKING, 

containing  Full  Instructions  as  to  Location  and  Soil,  Preparation  of  Ground,  Selection 

and  Propagation  of  Vines,  the  Treatment  of  Young  Vineyards,  Trimming  and  Training 

the  Vines,  Manures,  and  the  Making  of  Wine. 

DANA'S  MUCK  MANUAL,  FOR  THE  USE  OF  FARMERS,     -  1  00 

A  TREATISE  ON  THE  PHYSICAL  AND  CHEMICAL  PROPERTIES  OF 
Soils  and  Chemistry  of  Manures;  including,  also,  the  subject  of  Composts,  Artificial 
Manures  and  Irrigation.  A  new  edition,  with  a  Chapter  on  Bones  and  Superphos- 
phates. .  •» 

CHEMICAL  FIELD  LECTURES  FOR  AGRICULTURISTS,          -  1  00 

By  Dr.  JULIUS  ADOLIT.US  STOCKIIARDT,  Professor  in  the  Royal 
Academy  of  Agriculture  at  Tharant  Translated  from  the  German.  Edited,  with 
notes,  by  JAM.  s  £.  TECIIKMACHEE. 


4  Books  Published  ly  A.  O.  MOORP. 

BUIST'S    (BIOIRT)  FAMILY  KITCHEN  GAPDFNER,     -         -        $0  73 

CONTAINING  PLAIN  AND  ACCURATE  DESCRIPTION?  OF  <i/.  TEH  DIF- 
ferent  Species  and  Varieties  of  Culinary  Vegetables,  -with  their  Botanical,  English, 
French  and  German  names,  alphabetically  arranged,  with  the  Best  Mode  of  Cultivating 
them  in  the  Garden  or  under  Glass ;  also  Descriptions  and  Character  of  the  most  Select 
Fruits,  their  Management,  Propagation,  Ac.  By  KOBJERT  BDTST,  author  of  the  "  Am- 
erican Flower  Garden  Directory,"  &«. 

DOMESTIC  AND  ORNAMENTAL  POULTRY,  Plain  Plates,        -  100 

Do.  Do.  Do-         Colored  Plates,    -  2  00 

A  TREATISE  ON  THE  HISTORY  AND  MANGEMENT  OF  ORNAMENTAL 

and  Domestic  Poultry.    By  Eev.  EDMUND  SAUL  DIXON,  A.M.,  with  large  additions  b» 

J.  J.  KfiRR,  M.D.  Illustrated  with  sixty-five  Original  Portraits,  engraved  expressly  fol 

this  work.    Fourth  edition  revised. 

HOW  TO  BUILD  AND  VENTILATE  HOT-HOUSES,        -          -  1  J» 

A  PHACTICAI;  TREATISE  ON  THE  CONSTRUCTION,  HEATING  AND 
Ventilation  of  Hot-Houses,  including  Conservatories,  Green-Houses,  Graperies  an4 
other  kinds  of  Horticultural  Structures,  with  Practical  Directions  for  their  JI  imago 
mcnt,  in  regard  to  Light,  Heat  and  Air.  Illustrated  with  numerous  engravings.  By 
P.  B.  LEUCHARS,  Garden  Architect 
CHORLTON'S  GRAPE-GROWER'S  GUIDE,  ....  60 

INTENDED  ESPECIALLY  FOR  THE  AMERICAN  CLIMATE.  Being  a 
Practical  Treatise  on  the  Cultivation  of  the  Grape  Vine  In  each  department  of  Hou 
House,  Cold  Grapery,  Retarding  House  and  Out-doer  Culture.  With  Plans  for  tb< 
Construction  of  -he  Kequisite  Buildings,  and  giving  the  best  methods  for  Heating  the 
same.  Every  department  being  fully  illustrated.  By  WILLIAM  CHORLTON. 

NORTON'S  (JOHN  P.)  ELEMENTS  OF  SCIENTIFIC  AGRICULTURE,       6P 

OR,  THE  CONNECTION  BETWEEN  SCIENCE  AND  THE  ART  OF  PRACTICAL 

Farming.    Prize  Essay  of  the  New  York  State  Agricultural  Society.    By  JOHN  P. 

NORTON,  M.A.,  Professor  of  Scientific  Agriculture  in  Yale  College.    Adapted  to  the 

use  of  Schools. 

JOHNSTON'S  (J.  F.  W.)  CATECHISM  OF  AGRICULTURAL  CHEM- 
ISTRY AND  GEOLOGY, 25 

BY  JAMES  F.  W.  JOHNSTON.  M.A.,  F.R.SS.L.  and  B.,  Honorary 
Member  of  the  Eoyal  Agricultural  Society  oi  England,  and  author  of  "Lectures  on 
Agricultural  Chemistry  and  Geology."    With  an  Introduction  by  JOHN  PITKIN  NOR- 
TON, M.A.,  late  Professor  of  Scientific  Agriculture  in  Yale  College.    With  notes  and 
additions  by  the  author,  prepared  expressly  for  this  edition,  and  an  Appendix  compiled 
by  the  Superintendent  oi  Education  in  Nova  Scotia.    Adapted  to  the  use  of  Schools. 
JOHNSTON'S  (J.  F.  W.)  ELEMENTS  OF  AGRICULTURAL  CHEM- 
ISTRY AND  GEOLOGY, 1  00 

With    a    Complete  Analytical  and  Alphabetical    Index  and  an 

American  Preflace.    By  Hon.  SIMON  BROWH,  Editor  of  the  "New  England  Farmer.' 

JOHNSTON'S  (JAMES  F.  W.)  AGKICULTURAL  CHEMISTRY,  1  25 

LECTURES  ON  THE  APPLICATION  OF  CHEMISTRY  AND  GEOLOGY  TO 

Agriculture.    New  edition,  with  an  Appendix,  containing  the  Author's  Experiment* 

In  Practical  Agriculture. 

THE;  COMPLETE  FARMER  AND  AMERICAN  GARDENER,  i  25 

RURAL  ECONOMIST  AND  NEW  AMERICAN  GARDENER  :    Contahiin.sr 
n  Compendious  Epitome  of  the  most  Important  Branches  of  Agriculture  and  Knrai 
Economy ;  with  Practical  Directions  on  the  Cultivation  of  Fruits  and  Vegetables,  in- 
cluding Landscape  and  Ornamental  Gardening.    By  THOMAS  G.  FESSENDEK  .    2  >ola. 
'    tn  one. 

fESSENDEN'S  (I.  G.)  AMERICAN  KITCHEN  GARDENER,    -  50 

CONTAINING  DIRECTIONS  FOB  THE  CULTIVATION  OF  VEGETABLES  AND 
Garden  Fruits  Cloth. 


Books  Published  by  A.  0.  MOORE. 

SASH'S  (J.  A.)  PROGKESSIVE  FARMER,    -          -          -          -          SO  60 

A   SCIENTIFIC  TREATISE  ON  AGRICULTURAL  CHEMISTRY,  THE  GE- 

ology  of  Agriculture,  on  Plants  and  Animals,  Manures  and  Soils,  applied  to  Practical 

Agriculture ;  with  a  Catechism  of  Scientific  and  Practical  Agriculture.    By  J.  A.  NABH 

BEECK'S  BOOK  OF  FLOWEES, 1  00 

IN  WHICH  ARE  DESCRIBED  ALL  THE  VARIOUS  HARDY  HERBACEOUS 
Perennials,  Annuals,  Shrubs,  Plants  Mid  Evergreen  Trees,  with  Directions  for  theli 
Cultivation. 

I  KITE'S   (C.  H.  J.)  LANDSCAPE  GAEDENING,  PAEKS  AND  PIEASUEE 
GEOUNDS. 125 

WITH  PRACTICAL  NOTES  ox  COUNTRY  RESIDENCES,  VILLAS,  PUBLIC 

Parks  and  Gardens.  By  CHARLES  H.  J.  SWTH,  Landscape  Gardener  and  Garden 
Architect,  &c.  With  Notes  and  Additions  by  LEWIS  F.  ALLEN,  author  of  "Rural 
Architecture." 

THE  COTTON  PLANTEE'S  MANUAL,  ....  1  00 

BEING  A  COMPILATION  OF  FACTS  FROM  THE  BEST  AUTHORITIES  ON 
the  Culture  of  Cotton,  ite  Natural  History,  Chemical  Analysis,  Trade  and  Consumption, 
and  embracing  a  History  of  Cotton  and  the  Cotton  Gin.  By  J.  A.  TUKJOEK. 

UOBBETT'S  AMERICAN  GAEDENEE,  ....  50 

A  TREATISE  ON  THE  SITUATION,  SOIL,  AND  LAYING-OUT  OF  GARDENS, 
and  the  making  and  managing  of  Hot-Beds  and  Green-Houses,  and  on  the  Propagation 
and  Cultivation  of  the  several  sorts  of  Vegetables,  Herbs,  Fruits  and  Flowers. 

ALLEN  (J.  FISK)  ON  THE  CULTUBE  OF  THE  GRAPE,        -  1  00 

A  PRACTICAL  TREATISE  ON  THE  CULTURE  AND  TREATMENT  OF  THE 

Grape  Vine,  embracing  its  History,  with  Directions  for  its  Treatment  in  the  United 

States  of  America,  in  the  Open  Air  and  under  Glass  Structures,  with  and  without 

Artificial  Heat    By  J.  FISK  ALLEN. 

ALLEN'S  (E.  L )  DISEASES  OF  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  75 

BEING  A  HISTORY  AND  DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  HOKSE,  MULE,  CATTLE, 
Sheep,  Swine,  Poultry,  and  Farm  Dogs,  with  Directions  for  their  Management,  Breed, 
ing,  Crossing,  Rearing,  Feeding,  and  Preparation  for  a  Profitable  Market ;  also,  their 
Diseases  and  Remedies,  together  with  full  Directions  for  the  Management  of  the  Dairy, 
and  the  comparative  Economy  and  Advantages  of  \\  orking  Animals,  the  Horse,  Mule, 
Oxen,  Ac.  By  E.  L.  ALLEN. 

ALLEN'S  (R.  L.)  AMEEICAN  FAEM  BOOK,        -         -         -  1  00 

THE  AMERICAN  FARM  BOOK  ;  or,  a  Compend  of  American  Aprri cul- 
ture, being  a  Practical  Treatise  on  Soils,  Manures,  Draining,  Irrigation,  Grasses,  Grain, 
Roots.  Fruits,  Cotton,  Tobacco,  Sugar  Cane.  Rice,  and  every  Staple  Product  of  the 
United  States;  with  the  Best  Methods  of  Planting,  Cultivating  and  Preparation  for 
Market.  Illustrated  with  more  than  100  engravings.  By  It.  L.  ALLEN. 

ALLEN'S   (L.  F.)  EUEAL  ARCHITECTURE ;  1  25 

BEING  A  COMPLETE  DESCRIPTION  OF  FARM  HOUSES,  COTTAGES,  AND 

Out  Buildings,  comprising  Wood  Houses,  Workshops,  Tool  Houses,  Carriage  and 
Wagon  Houses,  Stables,  Smoke  and  Ash  Houses,  Ice  Houses,  Apiaries  or  Bee  Houses. 
Poultry  Houses.  Rabbitry,  Dovecote,  Piggery.  Barns,  and  Sheds  for  Cattle,  &c.,  .fee, 
together  with  Lawns,  Pleasure  Grounds,  and  Parks  ;  the  Flower,  Fruit,  and  Vege- 
table Garden;  also  useful  and  ornamental  domestic  Animals  for  the  Country  Resident, 
&c.,  &c  Also,  the  best  method  of  conducting  water  into  Cattle  Yards  and  Houses. 
Beautifully  illustrated. 

iff ARING'S  ELEMENTS  OF  AGRICULTURE;  ...  75 

A  BOOK  TOR  YOUNG  FARMERS,  WITH  QUESTIONS  FOR  THE  TOE  OF 


Books  Public/ted  by  A.  O.  MOOBE. 

PAKDEE  (E.  G.)  ON  STRAWBERRY  CULTURE  ;  $0  60 

A  COMPLETE  MANUAL  FOR  THE  CULTIVATION  OF  THE  STRAWBERRY  • 
with  a  description  of  the  best  varieties. 

Also, notices  of  the  Raspberry,  Blackberry,  Currant,  Goosebeny,  and  Grape;  with 
directions  for  their  cultivation,  and  the  selection  oi  the  best  varieties.  "Every  process 
here  recommended  has  been  proved,  the  plans  of  others  tried,  and  the  result  is  hert 
given."  "With  a  valuable  appendix,  containing  the  observations  and  experience  ol 
some  of  the  most  successful  cultivators  of  these  fruits  In  our  country. 

6UENON  ON  MILCH  COWS  ; 60 

A  TREATISE  ON  MILCH  Cows,  whereby  the  Quality  and  Quantity  of 
Milk  which  any  Cow  will  give  may  be  accurately  determined  by  observing  Nature' 
Marks  or  External  Indications  alone;  the  length  of  time  she  will  continue  to  give 
Milk,  &c.,  &c.  By  M.  FRANCIS  GUENON,  of  Libourne,  France.  Translated  by  NICHO- 
LAS P.  TBIST,  Esq. ;  with  Inti  eduction,  Remarks,  and  Observations  on  the  Cow  and 
the  Dairy,  by  JOHN  8.  SKINNEE.  Illustrated  with  numerous  engravings.  Neatly 
done  up  in  paper  covers,  37  cts. 

AMERICAN  POULTRY  YARD ;  1  00 

COMPRISING  THE  ORIGIN,  HISTORY  AND  DESCRIPTION  of  the  different 

Breeds  of  Domestic  Poultry,  with  complete  directions  for  their  Breeding,  Crossing, 
Rearing,  Fattening,  and  Preparation  for  Market ;  including  specific  directions  for 
Caponizing  Fowls,  and  for  the  Treatment  of  the  Principal  Diseases  to  which  they  are 
subject,  drawn  from  authentic  sources  and  personal  observation.  Illustrated  wiih 
numerous  engravings.  By  D.  J.  BROWNE. 

BKOWNE'S  (D.  JAY)  FIELD  BOOK  OF  MANURES;         -         -  125 

OR,  AMERICAN  MUCK  BOOK  ;  Treating  of  the  Nature,  Properties, 

Sources,  History,  and  Operations  of  all  the  Principal  Fertilizers  and  Manures  in  Com- 
mon Use,  with  specific  directions  for  their  Preservation,  and  Application  to  the  Soil 
and  to  Crops;  drawn  from  authentic  sources,  actual  experience,  and  personal  observa- 
tion, as  combined  with  the  Leading  Principles  of  Practical  and  Scientific  Agriculture- 
By  D.  JAY  BKOWNK. 

RANDALL'S  (H.  S.)  SHEEP  HUSBANDRY;  -          -          -  125 

WITH  AN  ACCOUNT  OK  THE  DIFFERENT  BREEDS,  and  general  direc- 
tions in  regard  to  Summer  and  Winter  Management,  Breeding,  and  the  Treatment  of 
Diseases,  with  Portraits  and  other  Engravings.  By  HENRY  S.  RANDALL. 

THE  SHEPHERD'S  OWN  BOOK ; 200 

WITH  AN  ACCOUNT  OF  THE  DIFFERENT  BREEDS,  DISEASES  AND  MAN- 
agement  of  Sheep,  and  General  Directions  in  regard  to  Summer  and  Winter  Man- 
agement, Breeding,  and  the  Treatment  of  Diseases ;  with  Illustrative  Engravings,  by 
You  ATT  &  RANDALL;  embracing  Skinner's  Notes  on  the  Breed  and  Management  of 
.v  h«ep  in  the  United  .  tates,  and  on  the  Culture  of  Fine  WooL 

YOU  ATT  ON  SHEEP  , 75 

THEIR  BREED,  MANAGEMENT  AND  DISEASES,  with  Illustrative  En- 

graving^;  to  which  are  added  Remarks  on  the  Breeds  and  Management  of  Sheep  ID 

'    th«  Unit»1  .-tales,  and  on  the  Culture  of  Fine  Wool  in  Silesia.    By  WILLIAM  YOUATT. 

YOUATT  AND  MARTIN  ON  CATTLE;         ....  1  25 

BEING  A  TREATISE  ON  THEIR  BREEDS,  MANAGEMENT,  AND  DISEASE:-, 
comprising  a  full  History  of  the  Various  Races;  their  Orisin,  Breeding  and  Merita; 
their  capacity  for  Beef  and  Milk.  By  W.  TOUATT  and  W.  C.  L.  MAKTIN.  The  whole 
forming  a  Complete  Guide  for  the  Farmer,  the  Amateur,  and  the  Veterinary  Surgeon, 
with  100  Illustrations.  Edited  by  AMBROSE  STEVENS. 

8WATT  ON  THE  HORSE  ; 1  25 

YOUATT  ON   THE  STRUCTURE  AND  DISEASES  OF   THE  HORSE,  with 

their  Remedies.  Also,  Practical  Rules  for  Buyers,  Breeders,  Smiths,  &c.  Edited  by 
W.  C.  SI-OONER,  M.R.C  V  S.  With  an  account  of  the  Breeds  In  the  United  .-tates,  by 
HINRY  s  RANDALL 


Books  Published  by  A.  O.  MOOEE.  7 

XOUATT  AND  MARTIN  ON  THE  HOG ;      -          -         -          -          $0  75 

A  TREATISE  ON  THE  BREEDS.  MANAGEMENT,  AND  MEDICAL  TKEAT- 

ment  of  Swine,  with  Directions  for  Salting  Pork,  and  Curing  1  aeon  and  Hams     l!y 

WM.  YOUATT,  Y.S  ,  and  W.  0  L.MARTIN    Edited  by  AJIJJKOSE  STEVENS.    Illustrated 

with  Engravings  drawn  from  life 

BLAKE'S  (REV.  JOHN  I.)  FAEJKER  AT  HOME;  1  25 

A  FAMILY  TEXT  BOOK  FOR  THE  COUNTRY;  being  a  Cyclopedia  of 

Agricultural  Implements  and  Productions,  and  of  the  more  important  topics  in  Do* 

mestic  Economy,    cience,  and  Literature,  adapted  to  Eural  Life.    By  Rev.  JOHN  L. 

BIAKB.DD. 

MUNN'S  (B.)  PRACTICAL  LAND  DRAINER;         -  50 

BEING  A  TREATISE  ON  DRAINING  LAND,  in  which  the  most  approved 
systems  of  Drainage  are  explained,  and  their  differences  and  comparative  merits  dis- 
cussed; with  full  Directions  for  the  Cutting  and  Making  of  Drains,  with  Remarks  upon 
the  various  materials  of  which  they  may  be  constructed .  With  many  illustrations.  I  J 
K.  MUNN,  Landscape  Gardener. 
ELLIOTT'S  AMERICAN  FRUIT  GROWER'S  GUIDE  IN  ORCHARD 

AND  GARDEN  ; 1  25 

BEING  A  COMPEND  OF  THE  HISTORY,  MODES  OP  PROPAGATION,  CUL- 
mre,  &«.,  of  Fruit  Trees  and  Shmbs,  with  descriptions  of  nearly  all  the  varieties  of 
P  ruits  cultivated  in  this  country ;  and  Notes  of  their  adaptation  to  localities,  soils,  and 
a  complete  list  of  t  ruits  worthy  of  cultivation,  l.y  K.  E.  ELLIOTT,  Pomologist. 

PRACTICAL  FRUIT,   FLOWER,   AND  KITCHEN  GARDENER'S  COM- 
PANION;   -  1  00 

WITH  A  CALENDAR.  By  PATRICK  NEILL,  LL.D.,  F.R.S.E.,  Secre- 
tary of  the  Eoyal  Caledonian  Horticultural  Society.  Adapted  to  the  United  States 
from  the  fourth  edition,  revised  and  improved  by  the  author.  Edited  by  G.  EMERSON, 
M  D.,  Editor  of  "The  American  Farmer's  Encyclopedia.'1  With  Notes  and  Additions 
by  B.  G  PABDEE,  author  of  "Manual  of  the  Strawb'erry  Culture."  With  illustrations 

STEPHENS'  (HENRY)  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM;  4  00 

A  COMPLETE  GUIDE  TO  THE  FARMER,  STEWARD,  PLOWMAN.  CAT- 

tleman,  Shepherd.  Field  Worker,  and  Dairy  Maid  By  HENRY  STEPHENS.  With  Pour 
Hundred  and  Fifty  Illustrations ;  to  which  are  added  Explanatory  Notes,  Eemarks, 
Ac.,  by  J-  8.  SKINNER.  Eeally  one  of  the  best  books  a  farmer  can  possess. 

FED DERS'  (JAMES)  FARMERS'  LAUD  MEASURER;    -          -  50 

OR,  POCKET  COMPANION  ;  Showing  at  one  view  the  Contents  of  am- 
Piece  of  Land  from  Dimensions  taken  in  Yards.  With  a  set  of  Useful  Agriculture. 
Tables. 

WHITE'S  i W.  N.)  GARDENING  FOR  THE  SOUTH;       -          -  125 

OR,  THE  KITCHEN  AND  FRUIT  GARDEN,  with  the  best  methods  for 

their  Cultivation ;  together  with  hints  npon  Landscape  and  Flower  Gardening;  con- 
taining modes  of  culture  and  descriptions  of  the  species  and  varieties  of  the  Culinary 
Vegetables,  Fruit  Trees,  arid  Fruits,  and  a  select  list  of  Ornamental  Trees  and  Plants, 
found  by  trial  adapted  to  the  States  of  the  Union  south  of  Pennsylvania,  with  Garden- 
ing  Calendars  lor  the  same.  By  WM.  N.  WHTTB,  of  Athene,  Georgia. 

EASTWOOD  (B.)  ON  THE  CULTIVATION  OF  THE  CRANBERRY  ;  50 

WITH  A  DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  BEST  VARIETIES."  BY  B.  EASTWOOD, 
"Septimus"  of  the  New  York  Tribune. 

AMERICAN  BEE-KEEPER'S  MANUAL;       ....  100 

BEING  A  PRACTICAL  TREATISE  ON  THE   HISTORY  AND   DOMESTIC 

Economy  of  the  Honey  Bee,  embracing  a  frill  Illustration  of  the  whole  subject,  with 
the  most  approved  methods  of  managing  this  Insect,  through  every  branch  of  it* 
Cultu  e;  the  resntt  of  many  years' experience.  Illustrated  with  many  engravings 
By  T.  B.  MINJSB. 


Books  Published  by  A.  0.  MOORE. 


IHAEE'S  (ALBERT  D.)  AGRICULTURE  -         -          -          $2  CO 

THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  AGRICULTURE,  by  ALBERT  D.  THAER  ;  trans- 
lated by  WILLIAM  SHAW  and  CUTHBEBT  W.  JOHKSON,  Esq.,  F.R.S.  With  a  Memoir 
of  the  Author.  1  vol.  8vo. 

This  work  is  regarded  by  those  who  are  competent  to  judge  as  one  of  the  most 
beautiful  works  that  has  ever  appeared  on  the  subject  of  Agriculture.  At  the  same 
time  that  it  is  eminently  practical,  it  is  philosophical,  and,  even  to  the  general  reader, 
remarkably  entertaining. 

BOUSSINGAULT'S  (J.  B.)  RURAL  ECONOMY,  -  1  25 

IN  ITS  RELATIONS  TO  CHEMISTRY,  PHYSICS,  AND  METEOROLOGY  : 
or,  Chemistry  applied  to  Agriculture.  By  J.  B.  BoussncGAUi/r.  Translated,  with 
notes,  etc.,  by  GEORGE  LAW,  Agriculturist. 
"  The  work  is  the  fruit  of  a  long  life  of  study  and  experiment,  and  its 


ill 


"  The  work  is  the  fruit  of  a  long  life  of  study  and  experiment,  and  its  perusal  >vil 
•id  the  farmer  greatly  in  obtaining  a  practical  and  scientific  knowledge  of  his  profes 
blon.v 

MYSTERIES  OF  BEE-KEEPING  EXPLAINED ;     -          -         -  1  00 

BEING  A  COMPLETE  ANALYSIS  OF  THE  WHOLE  SUBJECT,  consisting 

of  the  Natural  History  ol  Bees ;  Directions  for  obtaining  the  greatest  amount  of  Pure 

Surplus  Honey  with  the  least  possible  expense;  Remedies  for  losses  given,  and  the 

Bcience  of  Luck  fully  illustrated ;  the  result  of  more  than  twenty  years'  experience  In 

extensive  -Apiaries.    ByM  QUINSY. 

THE  COTTAGE  AND  FARM  BEE-KEEPER  ;  50 

A  PRACTICAL  WORK,  by  a  Country  Curate. 

WEEKS  ( JOHN  M.)  ON  BEES.-A MANUAL;        ...  50 

OR,  AN  EASY  METHOD  OF  MANAGING  BEES  IN  THE  MOST  PROFITABLE 
manner  to  their  owner;  with  infallible  rules  to  prevent  their  destruction  by  the  Moth. 
With  an  appendix,  by  WOOSTEB  A.  FLANDKBS. 

THE  ROSE ; 50 

BEING  A  PRACTICAL  TREATISE  ON  THE  PROPAGATION,  CULTIVATION, 
and  Management  »f  the  Rose  in  all  Seasons;  with  a  list  of  Choice  and  Approved  Varie- 
ties, adapted  to  the  Climate  of  the  United  States;  to  which  is  addedfull  directions  for 
the  Treatment  of  the  Dahlia.  Illustrated  by  Engravings. 

MOORE'S  RURAL  HAND  BOOKS, 1  25 

FIRST  SERIES,  containing  Treatises  on — 

THE  HORSE,  THE  PESTS  OF  THE  FABU, 

THE  HOG,  DOMESTIC  FOWLS,  and 

THE  HONEY  BEE,  THE  Cow, 

SECOND  SERIES,  containing —  ....  1  25 

£VEP.Y  LADY  HEK  own  FLOWEE  GABDENKB,       ESSAY  ON  MANURES, 
CLEMENTS  OF  AGBIOULTUBE,  AMEKICAN  KITCHEN  GARDENEK, 

BIRD  FANCIER,  AMERICAN  ROSE  CULTURE!. 

THIRD  SERIES,  containing —        -  1  25 

MILES  ON  THE  HORSE'S  FOOT,  VINE  DRESSEB'S  MANUAL, 

THE  RABBIT  FANCIER,  BKE-KEETFE'S  CHART, 

WEEKS  ON  BEES,  CHEMISTRY  MADE  EASY. 

FOURTH  SERIES,  containing —       -  ...  1  25 

PERSOZ  ON  TUB  VINE,  HOOPER'S  DOG  AND  Guir, 

LIEBIG  B  FAMLIAB  LETTERS,  SKILLFUL  HOUSEWIFE, 

BROWNE'S  MKMOIBS  OF  INDIAN  CORN. 

RICHARDSON  ON  DOGS  :  THEIR  ORIGIN  AND  VARIETIES.      .  50 

DIRECTIONS  AS  TO  THEIR  GENERAL  MANAGEMENT.     With  numerous 
original  anecdotes.    Also.  Complete  Instructions  as  to  Treatment  under  Disease.    By 
U  D  RICHARDSON.    Illustrated  with  numerous  wood  engravings. 
This  is  not  only  a  cheap  work,  but  one  of  the  best  ever  published  on  the  Dog 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 

Los  Angeles 
This  book  is  DUE  on  the  last  date  stamped  below. 


APRS -1957 


form  L9-50m-ll,'50 (2554)444 


Olcott  - 


Sorgho  and  im- 


TP 

!;05 

oli3s 

1853 


